今天读书内容进入罗素《西方哲学史》引言中第二段哲学时期的内容，读完后感慨，活着只有一次，多数的人却急于成为别人，只有少数人，不让机构或样板为自己发声，而是靠着理性说出自己的话，把握了自己短暂的一生。风姿绰约。

Michel de Montaigne

随君士坦丁一世（274-337）让基督宗教合法化，直到1453年东罗马帝国灭亡，这1000年的时光，神学思想成为主要的思想。“人对上帝的责任高于对城邦的责任”“人应该服从神而非服从人”，这些斯多葛学派的思想，随着基督宗教的光大而盛行。

Christianity popularized an important opinion, already implicit in the teaching of the Stoics,--I mean, the opinion that a man's duty to God is more imperative than his duty to the State.

你可能会问，罗马的统治者怎么能忍受人民不服从自己而是服从宗教呢？这个想法直觉是正确的，上述思想确实在皈依天主教的东罗马帝国、其后继承的俄罗斯帝国都是受到压抑的，不过，在君士坦丁一世改信东正教之前，早期罗马的基督教皇帝，是相信基督宗教的一只“Arianism”，所以对宗教高于神的思想意见不大，此外，西罗马灭亡后政权更迭的西欧，教会统领着地方城市，宗教对政治忠诚的优越性也幸存了下来。

This opinion--that "we ought to obey God rather than Man," as Socrates and the Apostles said--survived the conversion of Constantine, because the early Christian emperors were Arians or inclined to Arianism. When the emperors became orthodox, it fell into abeyance. In the Byzantine Empire it remained latent, as also in the subsequent Russian Empire, which derived its Christianity from Constantinople. But in the West, where the Catholic emperors were almost immediately replaced (except, in parts of Gaul) by heretical barbarian conquerors, the superiority of religious to political allegiance survived, and to some extent still survives.

单字讲解：

• abeyance：a state of temporary disuse or suspension. "matters were held in abeyance pending further enquiries"
• Arianism is a Christological doctrine first attributed to Arius, a Christian presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt.
• the superiority of religious to political allegiance survived 宗教对政治忠诚的优越性幸存下来， political allegiance政治效忠
• allegiance：loyalty or commitment to a superior or to a group or cause. "those wishing to receive citizenship must swear allegiance to the republic"“the Church could absolve subjects from the duty of allegiance, and so stimulate rebellion 教会可以免除臣民效忠的义务，从而激发叛乱”

整个公元4世纪直到11世纪中期止，值得注意的哲学成就，在东罗马仅有工艺传统和Justinian's Codes of Roman law，在西欧则仅有 Scotus Erigena（815-877）。

• Scotus Erigena was an Irish Catholic Neoplatonist philosopher, theologian and poet of the Early Middle Ages. Bertrand Russell dubbed him "the most astonishing person of the ninth century".
• “黑暗时代”：西罗马灭亡至文艺复兴

这段时间，文化是静止的，世界的构成在教士的想象里是完美、对称、有目的、符合特定的数字结构，他们的法律和政府概念也没什么变动，3世纪的罗马帝王马库斯·奥勒留，都可能比当时的君主更容易理解他们的法律和政府概念。

their conceptions of law and government would have been more intelligible to Marcus Aurelius than they were to contemporary monarchs.

第二段哲学时期A（11-14世纪）：意大利文化传播，阿奎那和但丁上台

Its second great period, from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, was dominated by the Catholic Church, except for a few great rebels, such as the Emperor Frederick II (1195-1250). This period was brought to an end by the confusions that culminated in the Reformation (Protestant Reformation, 1517-1648).

11世纪中期之后，发生了什么事，迎来了第二段哲学时期呢？

意大利罗马教廷在格里高利七世（1015 – 1085)时逐渐增加对西欧的掌握（之前可能是因为不具备物质基础，所以控制能力有限），随着宗教势力的扩张，政教冲突在西欧愈演愈烈，如腓特烈二世（1194-1250）尝试创新宗教，腓特烈二世治下的教士【意】阿奎那（1225-1274）可能反映教士观念的松动，其著作成为中世纪经典；一方面，长期为教士阶级垄断的文化，在意大利散播播到民间，而产生了以意大利方言创作的名家，如《神曲》作家【意】但丁（1265-1321）。

At first, outside Italy and southern France, his control over bishops and abbots was very slight, but from the time of Gregory VII (late eleventh century) it became real and effective.

In Italy, moreover, culture spread to the laity some centuries sooner than it did north of the Alps. Frederick II（1194-1250）, who tried to found a new religion, represents the extreme of anti-papal culture; Thomas Aquinas（1225-1274）, who was born in the kingdom of Naples where Frederick II was supreme, remains to this day the classic exponent of papal philosophy. Dante（1265-1321）, some fifty years later, achieved a synthesis, and gave the only balanced exposition of the complete medieval world of ideas.

第二段哲学时期B（14-17世纪中叶）：但丁之后

政治方面：罗马教廷和经院政府的衰微，马基雅维利和路德上台

但丁之后，大分裂、公会运动和文艺复兴时期的教皇权导致了宗教改革，破坏了基督教世界的统一和以教皇为中心的经院政府理论。十五世纪，教皇和皇帝在都失去了重要性。教皇变成了意大利王子中的一员，卷入了意大利强权政治的极其复杂和肆无忌惮的博弈中。法国、西班牙和英国的新国家君主制在他们自己的领土上拥有教皇和皇帝都无法干涉的权力。民族国家（拥有火药作为武器）对人们的思想和感情产生了前所未有的影响，并逐渐摧毁了罗马人对文明统一的信仰。在没有任何指导原则的情况下，政治变成了赤裸裸的权力斗争，这种政治混乱在【意】马基雅维利著作《王子》得到了体现。意大利的无政府状态，最终使他们像像希腊人一样，被文明程度不如自己但比较有社会凝聚力的国家统治。所幸西班牙等国比马其顿争气，他们的文明成就不亚于意大利。

After Dante, both for political and for intellectual reasons, the medieval philosophical synthesis broke down. It had, while it lasted, a quality of tidiness and miniature completeness; whatever the system took account of was placed with precision with relation to the other contents of its very finite cosmos. But the Great Schism, the conciliar movement, and the Renaissance papacy led up to the Refformation, which destroyed the unity of Christendom and the scholastic theory of government that centered round the Pope.

In the theory of politics, as in everything except art, there was a collapse of order. The Middle Ages, though turbulent in practice, were dominated in thought by a passion for legality and by a very precise theory of political power. All power is ultimately from God; He has delegated power to the Pope in sacred things and to the Emperor in secular matters. But Pope and Emperor alike lost their importance during the fifteenth century. The Pope became merely one of the Italian princes, engaged in the incredibly complicated and unscrupulous game of Italian power politics.
The new national monarchies in France, Spain, and England had, in their own territories, a power with which neither Pope nor Emperor could interfere. The national State, largely owing to gunpowder, acquired an influence over men's thoughts and feelings which it had not had before, and which progressively destroyed what remained of the Roman belief in the unity of civilization.

政教冲突逐步扩大，从南阿尔卑斯山地区，扩大为北方民族国家，对已衰落的意大利教廷的对抗。从十六世纪起，欧洲思想史以宗教改革为主。宗教改革是一场复杂的多方面运动，总的来说，这是北方国家对罗马新统治的反抗。宗教是征服北方的力量，但意大利的宗教已经衰落，北方民族国家的王子们很快就意识到，如果他们领土上的教会成为单纯的国家，他们将能够统治它，从而在国内变得比他们与教皇分享统治时更加强大。在这样的时代背景下，【德意志】路德的神学创新受到了北欧大部分地区的统治者和人民的欢迎，因为路德明确指出：上帝可没有指定谁来诠释圣经（there was no divinely appointed authority to decide the dispute），为王子们的反叛提供理论支撑。

From the sixteenth century onward, the history of European thought is dominated by the Reformation. The Reformation was a complex many-sided movement, and owed its success to a variety of causes. In the main, it was a revolt of the northern nations against the renewed dominion of Rome. Religion was the force that had subdued the North, but religion in Italy had decayed: the papacy remained as an institution, and extracted a huge tribute from Germany and England, but these nations, which were still pious, could feel no reverence for the Borgias and Medicis, who professed to save souls from purgatory in return for cash which they squandered on luxury and immorality. National motives, economic motives, and moral motives all combined to strengthen the revolt against Rome. Moreover the Princes soon perceived that, if the Church in their territories became merely national, they would be able to dominate it, and would thus become much more powerful at home than they had been while sharing dominion with the Pope. For all these reasons, Luther's theological innovations were welcomed by rulers and peoples alike throughout the greater part of northern Europe.

文化方面，人们在秩序中拥抱混乱，以蒙田为代表

思想方面，此前，思想的特征是整洁和微型完整的品质，系统所考虑的任何东西都与它非常有限的宇宙的其他内容相关地精确放置。 但丁之后，一路到文艺复兴时期，古代和地球表面的新知识使人们厌倦了被认为是精神监狱的系统，哥白尼天文学赋予地球和人类一个比托勒密理论更卑微的地位。 在聪明的人中间，对新事实的快乐取而代之。在旧秩序尚存，而理性思想抬头的阶段，【法】蒙田（1533-1592）可以说是这段时期的思想代表。

In the Renaissance period new knowledge, both of antiquity and of the earth's surface, made men tired of systems, which were felt to be mental prisons. The Copernican astronomy assigned to the earth and to man a humbler position than they had enjoyed in the Ptolemaic theory. Pleasure in new facts took the place, among intelligent men.

路德的概念——上帝可没有指定谁来诠释圣经（there was no divinely appointed authority to decide the dispute）——不止在政治方面动摇罗马教廷，并促成无政府主义的发展，在文化方面，宗教也转向了密契主义（mysticism），一种罗马天主教教义方面的无政府主义。结果，无论在思想上还是在文学上，都是一种不断加深的主观主义，起初是从精神奴役中解放出来的一种健康的解放，但逐渐走向不利于社会理智的个人孤立。

The result, in thought as in literature, was a continually deepening subjectivism, operating at first as a wholesome liberation from spiritual slavery, but advancing steadily towards a personal isolation inimical to social sanity.