段落和句子结构

1. 一般段落结构

段落一般包括三部分
a. A topic sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph is about and in some way connects with the previous paragraph.

b. From one to eight sentences in a logical sequence that develop the topic.

c. A concluding sentence, possibly referring back to the first sentence or forward to the next paragraph.

2. 怎样组织一个段落

举例：
(S1) Different writers have different methods of organizing their reports, and some seem  to  have  no  discernible  method  at  all.  (S2)  Most  of  the  better  writers,  however, appear to be in remarkably close agreement as to the general approach to organization. (S3)  This  approach  consists  of  stating  the  problem,  describing  the  method  of  attack, developing the results, discussing the results, and summarizing the conclusions. (S4) You  may  feel  that  this  type  of  organization  is  obvious,  logical,  and  natural.  (S5) Nevertheless,  it  is  not  universally  accepted.  (S6)  For  example,  many  writers  present results and conclusions near the beginning, and describe the derivation of these results in subsequent sections.

words, sentences, punctuation repetitions of key words：停顿多，多重复

Total words  = 101 ； Total sentences = 6 ； Average words per sentence = 16.8 ；Longest sentence  = 22 words； Shortest sentence  = 6 words；Full stops (.) = 6；Commas (,)  = 10；Semi colons (;) = 0.

S1 总结句。S2修饰/限定S1。S3重复approach。S4直接面向读者。S5，转折短句。S6连词。

技巧：1.重复同一个词。2.一句话最多两个意思，S4和S5一个意思，S6用and连接了两个意思。

3. 新的一节的第一段

1)可以加一个小总结，可以只总结这一节，或者可以提到未来的章节，但是要注意篇幅不要太长。

2）如果要求短文，也可以没有总结，直接进入主题。

4. 新旧信息放在段落的什么位置

version 1 Readability formulas calculate how readable a text is by determining the level of difficulty of each individual word and the length of sentences. All types of writers can use these formulas in order to understand how difficult or readable their texts would be for the average reader. However, readability formulas are based purely on what is considered difficult for a native English speaker, and do not take into account problems that may be encountered by non-natives. In this paper ...（背景旧信息呈现比较多）适合非这个研究方向的期刊摘要或者引言

version 2 Current readability formulas are based purely on what is considered difficult for a native English speaker. They fail take into account problems that may be encountered by non-natives.  One  thousand  five  hundred  PhD  students  from  10  countries  were  asked  to evaluate the difficulty of five technical texts from their business discipline written by native English  speakers.  Three  key  difficulties  were  found:  unfamiliar  vocabulary  (typically Anglo-Saxon words), unfamiliar cultural references, and the use of humor. The paper also proposes a new approach to assessing the level of readability of texts to account for such difficulties.（直接说优于前面文章的是什么）适合这个研究方向的摘要或者引言

version 3 Unfamiliar vocabulary (typically Anglo-Saxon words), unfamiliar cultural references, and the use of humor: these, according to our survey of 1500 PhD students, are the main difficulties non-native speakers have when reading a business text in English. Our results highlight the need to adjust current readability formulas in order to take non-native speakers  into  account.  The  paper  also  proposes  a  new  approach  to  assessing  the  level  of readability of texts to account for such difficulties.（直接呈现发现的结果）有很突出的结果或者发现，这个方向非常专业的期刊。

5. 新旧信息放在句子的什么位置

1）从句里面的句子信息一般没有主句重要，或者说从句里面的信息是旧的

正例. English, which is the international language of communication, is now studied by 1.1 billion people.

反例.  * English,  which  is  now  studied  by  1.1  billion  people,  is  the  international  language  of communication.

反例. English is now studied by 1.1 billion people, though this number is expected to drop with the rise in importance of Chinese.

正例.  Although English is now studied by 1.1 billion people, this number is expected to drop with the rise in importance of Chinese.

如果是想要表示两部分一样重要，可以拆成两个句子。

6.句子逻辑

1）段落中，一般都是从一般概念到具体的概念。

2）用相同的(逻辑的)顺序陈述和解释观点

3）不要强迫读者改变观点

1.It is important to remark that our components are  of  a  traditional  design.  However,  we want to stress that the way the componentsare assembled is very innovative.

Although  our  components  are  of  a  traditional design, the way they are assembled is very innovative. （提示词）

2. Working  in  this  domain  entails  modifying the  algorithms  as  we  are  dealing  with complex numbers.

Since  we  are  dealing  with  complex numbers,  working  in  this  domain  also entails modifying the algorithms. （时间顺序呈现信息，假设提前）

3. Therefore,  the  rescaled  parameters  seem to  be  appropriate  for  characterizing  the properties,  from a statistical point of view.

Therefore, from  a  statistical  point  of  view,  the  rescaled  parameters  seem  to  be  appropriate for characterizing the properties.（假设提前）

4. The number of times this happens when the user is online is generally  very few. 

This rarely  happens  when  the  user  is online.(否定词在开头)

5. Documentation  on  this  particular  matter  is almost  completely lacking . 

There  is  virtually  no  documentation  on this particular matter.(否定词在开头)

6. *Consequently  we  found  this  particular type of service not interesting.

Consequently  we  did  not  find  this particular type of service interesting.(否定词在开头)

7 使用一致的编号系统来列出阶段、状态、部件等。first(ly), second(ly), third(ly), finally.

8 当你谈论你的研究和你的主要发现时，开始一个新的段落。This study shows that / Our findings highlight / These

results indicate that

9 段落不要太长

一篇写得好的研究论文一段的最长长度是15行。但大多数段落应该更短。如果你已经写了8个12行或4个6句以上，那么你可能需要重新阅读你所写的，并考虑从哪里开始一个新的段落。

10 开启新段落的标记

一个段落可以只有一两个句子，但是这样的段落不要太多

1）In order to do this / To this end / With this mind

To state the purpose of something. For instance, you outline a requirement, and then you begin to say how you could meet this requirement

Then / Following this / Afterwards 

To indicate a temporal relationship

For example , / An example of this is  /  In fact, / Unlike  /  Nevertheless,

To give an example or supporting/negating evidence. By ‘example’ I don’t mean just a list of items, but a complete example or evidence that supports or negates what you have just been saying and that requires several sentences to explain

In addition / Another way to do / An additional feature of

To add additional points. For instance, if you are focusing just on one thing (e.g.  X) and you talk about X’s attributes

On the other hand /  However /  In contrast

To qualify what you have just said: i.e. to indicate an exception or the two sides of an argument

Due to / Since / Although 

To give reasons for something

Thus / Therefore / Consequently / Because of this

To indicate a consequence

This means that / This highlights that / These considerations imply that / In conclusion / In sum

To announce and give a mini conclusion about what you have said in the previous sentences

Figure  1 shows / As can be seen in Table  2 

To talk about figures, tables etc.

Firstly, secondly, finally 

To introduce elements in a list

As far as X is concerned, / In relation to X,/In the case of / With regard to / As noted earlier

To introduce a new element; to recall something mentioned earlier

It is worth noting that / Interestingly

To add some additional information or make some comment, not necessarily directly about something you have mentioned before but as an aside.

11 段落的总结

逻辑清晰可以不需要总结。如果拿掉总结后，不影响理解可以不需要总结。一个小节中，引言和结论常用小段总结。总结的时候一定要避免冗余。