18 Clarifying Issues分析 澄清问题
18 Clarifying Issues分析 澄清问题
这一部分讲解如何分析问题，我们通常拿到一个问题之后会根据自己的直觉进行分析，然而这样做很容易犯错。这里告诉我们如何正确的方式去分析问题。首先在大的问题之下分各个小问题，把大问题从不同的角度拆分。其次在众多小问题中找到符合自己需求的能达到自己目的的小问题。最后精确地分析你关注的这些问题时刻提醒自己关注这个主题不偏离。
Many people make the scope of their analysis larger than they can manage. Uncertain as to whether they can find enough about one aspect of a topic, they address the whole topic. Unfortunately, by grouping all aspects together rather than separating them, such people tend to ignore important distinctions, miss subtleties, and distort the relationships among ideas. Any inquiry and judgment that follow such a beginning are likely to be shallow and oversimplified.
许多人使他们的分析范围比他们能够管理的大。对于他们是否能够充分了解某个主题的某个方面并不确定，他们会针对整个主题。不幸的是，通过将所有方面集中在一起而不是将它们分开，这些人往往忽视重要的区别，错过微妙之处，并扭曲思想之间的关系。在这样的开始之后，任何调查和判断都可能会变得简单和过于简单化。
Skilled analysis, on the other hand, understands that if they conduct their inquiry carefully, they will usually find more than enough to say about even a small aspect of an issue. They know that a quality analysis, particularly of a controversial matter, usually demands that their focus be severely limited. They realize that unless they are writing a long book, they must sacrifice breadth of treatment to achieve depth. In other words, they have learned the wisdom of the saying,"Less is more."
另一方面，熟练的分析理解，如果他们仔细地进行调查，他们通常会发现绰绰有余甚至足以说明问题的一小部分。他们知道，质量分析，特别是有争议的事情，通常要求他们的重点受到严重限制。他们意识到，除非他们写一本长长的书，否则他们必须牺牲宽广的治对待以达到深度。换句话说，他们已经学会了“少就是多”这句话的智慧。
HOW TO CLARIFY AND ISSUE
如何澄清问题
To get the most out of our thinking we must, like the skilled analysts, limit our topics appropriately. That is, we must determine at the outset what aspect or aspects of the broad general issue we are concerned with. We should select the particular aspect we wish to focus on, and in doing so settle not for a rough, vague notion but only a precise one. The following steps provide a quick yet effective way to select and clarify an issue.
为了充分利用我们的思维，我们必须像熟练的分析师一样适当地限制我们的主题。也就是说，我们必须首先确定我们所关心的广泛问题的哪些方面。我们应该选择我们希望关注的特定方面，这样做不是为了一个粗略的，模糊的概念，而只是一个确切的概念。以下步骤提供了一种快速而有效的方式来选择和澄清问题。
1 List as many specific subheadings as you can that are included under the broad, general issue you have chosen. In the case of an important controversial issue, your list may include more than a dozen subheadings, each of which is a minor issue in itself and therefore a challenge to your critical thinking.
1 列出尽可能多的特定小标题，这些小标题包含在您选择的广泛的一般问题之下。 在一个重要的争议问题中，你的清单可能包括十几个小标题，每个小标题本身就是一个小问题，因此对你的批判性思维构成挑战。
2 Decide exactly which specific issue (subheading) you are concerned with. Seldom will you be able to treat all specific issues adequately. The one or ones you choose should not only meet your interest but also fit the occasion and purpose of your analysis and the amount of time and space you have available.
2 确定你所关心的具体问题（副标题）。 您很少能够充分处理所有具体问题。您选择的一个或多个不仅要满足您的兴趣，还要符合分析的时机和目的以及您可用的时间和空间量。
3 Express the specific issue (subheading) you are concerned within one or more clear, carefully focused questions. Doing this helps keep the subsequent inquiry focused and prevents your drifting from the issue. If the questions are written out, when your thoughts move in a certain direction, you can quickly glance at the questions and decide whether that direction is likely to be productive.
2 用一个或多个清晰，专注的问题表达您关心的具体问题（副标题） 。这样做有助于保持后续调查的重点并防止您从问题中偏离出来。如果问题被写出来，当你的想法朝某个方向移动时，你可以快速浏览问题并决定这个方向是否有可能产生效果。
Let's see how these three steps apply to some actual issues.
让我们看看这三个步骤如何适用于一些实际问题。
SAMPLE ISSUE: ABORTION
问题案例：流产
In January 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roe v. Wade that abortion was legal. Yet as we enter the final decade of this century the American people are sharply divided on the matter. Like most controversial matters, the issue of abortion is not merely a single issue but a cluster of smaller issues. No contribution to the discussion of abortion is likely to be worthwhile unless it begins with an awareness of that fact. Here is how our three-step approach can help you separate the individual parts of that cluster and deal with them meaningfully. (For the sake of brevity, the left column presents the subheading in the form it might first occur to you, and the right column shows how, after deciding that you were concerned with it, you might refine the subheading into a question.)
1973年1月，美国最高法院在Roe诉韦德案中裁定堕胎是合法的。然而，当我们进入本世纪的最后十年时，美国人民在这个问题上分歧很大。像大多数有争议的事情一样，堕胎问题不仅仅是一个问题，而是一系列小问题。除非人们认识到这一事实，否则对讨论堕胎没有任何贡献。以下是我们的三步式方法如何帮助您将该群集的各个部分分开并有意义地处理它们。（为了简洁起见，左栏以可能首先出现的形式显示了小标题，右栏显示了在决定关注它之后，如何将小标题改进为一个问题。）
The Subheading:
副标题：
A woman's right over her body
一个女人对她的身体的权利
The Question:
副标题：
Does a woman have the right to decide how her body will be used? If so, should the fetus be considered a part of her body?
女人是否有权决定如何使用她的身体？如果是这样，胎儿是否应该被视为她身体的一部分？
The Subheading:
副标题：
The doctor's role
医生的角色
The Question:
问题：
Does the doctor have an obligation only to the patient (the woman) or to the fetus as well?
医生是否仅对患者（女性）或胎儿有义务？
The Subheading:
The status of the fetus
胎儿的状态
The Question:
At what point, if any, during a pregnancy does the fetus become a human being?
在怀孕期间，如果有的话，什么时候胎儿会变成人类？
The Subheading:
The role of law
法律的作用
The Question:
If the fetus at some point during the pregnancy becomes a human being, do the enforcers of the law (the police and the courts)have any obligation to protect its right?
如果胎儿在怀孕期间的某个时刻成为人类，法律的执法者（警察和法院）是否有义务保护其权利？
The Subheading:
The stage of the pregnancy怀孕的阶段
The Question:
At what times during a pregnancy, if any, should an abortion be permitted? (First three months? First six months? Any time before birth?)
在怀孕期间，如果有的话，应该允许堕胎吗？（前三个月？前六个月？出生前任何时间？）
The Subheading:
The age of the woman女人的年龄
The Question:
Should the woman's age be a factor in the decision whether to permit an abortion? Should a child of thirteen be treated the same as a woman of forty?
该女性的年龄应该是决定是否允许堕胎的一个因素？十三岁的孩子应该像四十岁的女人一样对待吗？
The Subheading:
Cases of rape and incest强奸和乱伦案件
The Question:
Should cases of rape and incest be treated differently from other cases? That is, does the fact that the woman was raped or impregnated by a close relative create a special warrant for abortion?
对强奸和乱伦的案件应否与其他案件区别对待？也就是说，这名妇女是否被强奸或被近亲侵害的事实是否会为堕胎制造特别令？
The Subheading:
Parental consent for minors
未成年人的父母同意
The Question:
Should parental consent be required before abortions are performed on minors?
在对未成年人进行堕胎之前，是否需要父母同意？
The Subheading:
Government assistance for the poor
政府对穷人的援助
The Question:
Should the government, through Medicaid, pay for the abortions of women who lack the financial means to pay for them themselves?
政府是否应该通过医疗补助计划为没有财力支付的妇女堕胎支付费用？
The Subheading:
The right of the father
父亲的权利
The Question:
does the husband or lover of a woman who seeks an abortion have any right? If he opposes the abortion, should the woman be permitted to have it anyway?
寻求堕胎的妇女的丈夫或情人是否有权利？如果他反对堕胎，那么女性是否应该允许拥有它？
The Subheading:
A constitutional amendment to ban abortion
禁止堕胎的宪法修正案
The Question:
should the U.S. Constitution be amended to ban abortion (or to extend the guarantees of law to the unborn from the moment of conception?)
是否应修改美国宪法以禁止堕胎（或从受孕那一刻起将法律保障延伸到未出生的地方？）
SAMPLE ISSUE: BOXING
样品问题：拳击
The ring Record Book lists 337 professional boxers who have died from injuries sustained in prize fights since World War II. In the United States alone, 120 boxers have died form such injuries. With the death of a Korean fighter, DukDoo Kim, following a barrage of punches by Ray "Boom Boom" Mancini,an issue that had received the public's attention many times previously raged once again: Should boxing be outlawed? Like the abortion issue, this one is really a cluster of smaller issues. Here is how the three-step approach to clarifying issues would apply to it.
“环形记录簿”列出了337名职业拳击手，他们因二战以来在职业拳击中受伤而死亡。仅在美国，就有120名拳手因伤势而死亡。随着韩国战斗机Duk Doo Kim的死亡，在Ray“Boom Boom”Mancini一连串的拳击之后，一个曾多次受到公众关注的问题再次激烈： 拳击应该被禁止？ 像堕胎问题一样，这个问题真的是一系列小问题。以下是澄清问题的三步法如何应用于此。
The Subheading:
The boxer's right to earn a living拳击手的谋生权利
The Question: Would the outlawing of boxing be an unfair denial of the boxer's right to earn a living?问题： 拳击的打击是不公平否认拳击手的谋生权利？
The Subheading:
Boxing and mental health拳击和心理健康
The Question: Is the expression of violence that takes place in a boxing match an emotionally healthy experience for the fighters themselves? For the spectator?问题： 发生在拳击比赛中的暴力表达对战士本身而言是一种情感上健康的体验吗？对于观众？
The Subheading:
The popularity of boxing拳击的普及
The Question: How valid is the argument that boxing should be allowed to continue because it has historically been, and continues to be, very popular?问题： 拳击应该被允许继续的论点有多合理，因为它历来一直而且将继续非常受欢迎？
The Subheading:
The classification of boxing as a sport拳击作为一种运动 的 分类
The Question: Is boxing properly classified as a sport? That is, does the fact that the contestants aim to render each other senseless disqualify it from that classification?问题：拳击是否适当地归类为运动？也就是说，参赛者的目标是否使对方无意义地使其不符合该分类标准？
The Subheading:
Overcoming the dangers克服危险
The Question: Is it possible, perhaps by modifying the rules or the equipment, to eliminate or at least reduce the physical danger to fighters?问题： 是否有可能通过修改规则或设备来消除或至少减少战士的身体危险？
The Subheading:
The effects of being punched被打 的 效果
The Question: Exactly what effect does a punch have on the human body, particularly the brain? What is the cumulative effect of the punches received during ten or fifteen rounds of boxing? During a career?
问题：一拳对人体特别是大脑有什么影响？在十轮或十五轮拳击中获得的拳击的累积效应是什么？在职业生涯中？
SAMPLE ISSUE: JUVENILE CRIME
少年犯罪
For much of this century juvenile criminals have been accorded special treatment in the courts. Because the emphasis was on rehabilitating rather than on punishing them, the charges were different – "juvenile delinquency" rather than assault or murder – as were the proceedings and disposition of the case –"hearings" rather than trails, sealed records rather than publicity, and lectures rather than imprisonment. In recent years, however, the public has become dissatisfied with that system. Many people are demanding that criminals be treated as criminals, regardless of their age. The broad issue is usually expressed as "Should juvenile criminals be treated the same as adult criminals?" however, like the other issues we have examined in this chapter, this broad issue represents a cluster of smaller issues, which you might clarify as follows:
在本世纪的大部分时间里，少年犯都被法院给予特殊待遇。因为重点在于康复而不是惩罚他们，所以指控是不同的 - “少年犯罪”而不是殴打或谋杀 - 案件的诉讼和处理也是如此 - “听证”而不是追踪，密封记录而不是宣传，并讲课而不是监禁。但近年来，公众对这一制度不满。许多人要求将罪犯视为犯罪分子，不论其年龄。这个广泛的问题通常表达为“少年犯应该像成年罪犯一样对待吗？”然而，就像我们在本章中讨论过的其他问题一样，这个广泛的问题代表了一系列较小的问题，你可能会澄清如下：
The Subheading:
Causes of juvenile crime青少年犯罪的原因
The Question: Are juvenile delinquents alone responsible for their criminality? Are parents and others in society (makers of violent films,for example) also responsible? If others are responsible, should the law"get tough" with them? How?问题： 青少年犯罪者是否独自负责其犯罪行为？父母和社会中的其他人（例如暴力电影的制作人）是否也负有责任？如果其他人有责任，法律是否应该与他们“硬”？ 怎么样？
The Subheading:
The age of responsibility责任年龄
The Question: Is it reasonable or fair to hold people responsible for their actions before they are old enough to understand their moral and legal quality? At what age does a person reach such understanding?问题： 在他们年龄足以理解他们的道德和法律质量之前，让人们对他们的行为负责是合理或公平的吗？一个人到了什么年龄才能达到这样的理解？
The Subheading:
Similarities or differences between juveniles and adults青少年与成年人之间的相似或不同
The Question: Is it reasonable to hold a fourteen-year-old(or a sixteen- or eighteen-year-old) as accountable as a twenty-one- or thirty-year-old?问题： 将十四岁（或十六岁或十八岁）视为二十一岁或三十岁的孩子是否合理？
The Subheading:
Effect of publicity on juvenile crime宣传对青少年犯罪 的影响
The Question: Will publicizing young people's crimes deter juvenile crime? Will it assist in the process of rehabilitation?问题： 宣传青少年犯罪是否会威慑青少年犯罪？它会协助康复过程吗？
The Subheading:
effects of imprisonment on juveniles监禁对青少年 的影响
The Question: What effect will imprisonment have on teenagers? On preteens?
问题： 监禁会对青少年产生什么影响？关于preteens？
The Subheading:
Differences in crimes不同的犯罪
The Question: Should all juvenile crimes be handled alike? That is, should the criminal's age be considered in certain crimes (Vandalism and shoplifting, for example), but not considered in others (rape and murder,for example)?问题： 所有的少年犯应该如何处理？也就是说，如果罪犯的年龄在某些罪行中被考虑（例如，破坏行为和偷窃行为），而在其他人身上则不予考虑（例如强奸和谋杀）？
The Subheading:
Recidivism累犯
The Question: Should chronic juvenile offenders be treated differently from first-time offenders? If so, in what way?问题： 慢性青少年罪犯是否应该与初次犯罪者区别对待？如果真是这样，那么是以哪种方式？
The Subheading:
Prisons监狱
The Question: If juvenile offenders are sent to prison (say,for crimes of violence), should they be housed in the same institutions as adult criminals?问题： 如果少年犯被送入监狱（比如暴力犯罪），他们是否应该与成年犯同在一个机构？
By identifying precisely the issue we wish to examine, we not only ensure a clearer focus and increase the chance that we will not exceed our competency. We also make the job of analysis easier. The fewer aspects competing for our attention, the less distracted and confused we are likely to be. Even on those rare occasions when we will be addressing the entire issue in all its aspects, careful identification of those aspects can make our inquiry more orderly and purposeful. Finally, precise identification of the issue lessens the chance of oversimplifying complex matters.通过明确地确定我们希望研究的问题，我们不仅确保更明确的重点，并增加我们不超过我们的能力的机会。我们也使分析工作更容易。争夺我们注意力的方面越少，我们就越不会分心和困惑。即使在罕见的情况下，我们将在所有方面解决整个问题，仔细确定这些方面可以使我们的调查更有序和有目的。最后，对问题的精确识别减少了将复杂事项过于简单化的可能性。
APPLICATIONS
应用
1 This chapter explains three steps that are helpful in selecting and clarifying an issue for analysis. Apply those steps with each of two of the following topics. Be sure to select topics that interest you, because applications in subsequent chapters will build on this one.
本章介绍的三个步骤对选择和澄清的问题进行分析很有帮助。
应用这些步骤，以下两个主题。
一定要选择你有兴趣的主题，因为在后面的章节中的应用将建立在这一个上。
Should the federal income tax system in the United States be reformed?
是否应该在美国联邦所得税制度改革？
Is sex education desirable in elementary and secondary schools?
性教育是否应当设立在在小学和中学？
Should the divorce laws be tightened so that it is more difficult to obtain a divorce?
是否应该让离婚法收紧，使其更难获得离婚？
Is it possible for a sane person to commit suicide?
是否有可能一个理智的人自杀？
Does a government ever have the right to impose the death penalty for a criminal offense?
难道政府曾经有判处死刑的刑事罪行的权利？
Should prostitution be legalized?
是否应让卖淫合法化？
Should lobbying by special interest groups be outlawed?
应该受到特殊利益集团的游说予以取缔？
Should advertising be banned from children's TV (for example, from Saturday morning cartoon shows)?
是否应让广告从儿童电视禁止（例如，从周六上午卡通节目）？Are people who practice devil worship insane?
疯狂膜拜的人是否是精神病？
Is it reasonable to believe in UFOs?
是否有理由相信不明飞行物？
Are male athletes naturally superior to female athletes?
是否男运动员自然优于女运动员？
The following topics were included in the applications for Chapter 1.Choose one of the topics and apply the three steps for clarifying an issue presented in this chapter. (Disregard your earlier analysis of the issue.)
以下主题已包含在第1章的申请中。选择其中一个主题，并采用三个步骤来阐明本章中提出的问题。（不要理会你之前对这个问题的分析。）
Should freshman composition be are quired course for all students?
大一新生应该成为所有学生的必修课吗？
Should athletes be tested for anabolic steroid use?
运动员是否应该进行合成代谢类固醇的测试？
Should creationism be taught in high school biology classes?
创造论应该在高中生物课中教授吗？
Should polygamy be legalized?
一夫多妻应该合法化吗？
Should be voting age be lowered to sixteen?
投票年龄应该降至16岁？
Should extremist groups like the Ku Klux Klan be allowed to hold rallies on public property?
像三K党这样的极端主义组织应该被允许举行公共财产集会吗？
Should the prison system give greater emphasis to the punishment or to the rehabilitation of inmates?
监狱系统应该更重视惩罚还是修复犯人？
Should doctors and clinics be required to notify parents of minors when they prescribe birth control devices for the minors?
是否应要求医生和诊所在为未成年人开具计划生育装置时通知未成年人的父母？
这个系列是对超越感觉：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻译练习，如果觉得有帮助可以点链接购买第九版中文，英文原版在这里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英语）
