《Teaching Reading: Foundational

作者：Valerie Maxsam Ed.S
版本：ISBN: 978-1-4835482-9-6
来源：下载的 PDF 版本

最近因为学习英语的缘故，会随意的翻一些英语书，记录的新知识点也许不多，主要是为了强化自己对英语的直觉

这是一本写作给教育工作者的书，帮助教育工作者指导3-9岁儿童的阅读能力提升，从中可以一窥西方国家基础教育中的一些方法，确实在导向性上和中国的教育体系有所差异，读的虽然有点磕绊，确也是非常棒的阅读体验

文章摘录：

Four prefixes account for 58 percent of all prefixed words:

• Un
• Re
• In (il, ir, im)
• Dis

Twenty prefixes account for 97% of all prefixed words and 16 suffixes account for 87% of all suffixed words.

Why don’t we spell words the way they sound?

As a succession of languages brought an influx of new vocabulary into English over the centuries—German, Scandinavian, French, Latin, Greek and Spanish — the way these words were spelled in the original language was usually brought in as well. This had an inevitable effect of moving spelling away from its straightforwardly alphabetic, letter-sound foundation. The root word used depends on the people who created the word, the purpose of the word, when the word entered English.

The development of the English language is divided into three periods Old English, Middle English and Modern English. The beginning and end of each period is marked by a significant event, such as an invasion or an invention.

Teaching students to only spell the 100 most frequently occurring words is not the best instructional practice

Children have a much larger listening vocabulary than a speaking vocabulary and their reading vocabulary exceeds their writing vocabulary.
The goal of teaching vocabulary is to move vocabulary from receptive to expressive.

Most kids have a 5,000 word oral vocabulary when they come to school, but reading vocabulary is much less than that. It is difficult for children with less vocabulary knowledge to catch up with their classmates because high achievers learn more words and they learn them more quickly than low achievers.
Researchers have noticed that children from high SES homes know twice as many words as those from low SES homes.

High SES students’ reading vocab. grow at a rate of 3,000 to 4,000 words per year but it:

• Depends on type of instruction
• Depends on how well students use context clues
• Depends on students’ interest

Between grades 3-9, it is estimated that children will encounter 100,000 distinct words in their reading. By the time children graduate from high school, highachieving students’ vocabularies reach 50,000 words or more

The breadth of knowledge is how many words a student knows, the depth of vocabulary is how well a student knows the word. When teaching vocabulary, teachers should focus on depth of knowledge. It is better to teach 10 words that students will learn well than 50 words that students will only be introduced too.

Formulate questions that become the basis for students’ future literacyrelated activities

“All evidence points to the seemingly illogical conclusion that the faster most people read, the better they understand.” – Harry Shefter, Faster Reading Self-Taught

“Once you learn to read, you will be forever free.” — Frederick Douglass

It is generally acknowledged that motivation plays a critical role in learning. It often makes the difference between learning that is superficial and shallow and learning that is deep and internalized.
Listed below are six research-based strategies that will help motivate students to want to read:

1. The teacher as an explicit reading model. Research suggests that teachers who love reading and are avid readers themselves have students who have higher reading achievement than do students of teachers who rarely read. Teachers become explicit reading models when they share their own reading experiences with students and emphasize how reading enhances and enriches their lives.

2. A book-rich classroom environment. A number of studies during the past decade have provided support for the notion that when children have environments that are book-rich, the motivation to read is high.

3. Opportunities for choice. The role of choice, in motivation in general and reading motivation in particular, is well recognized. The research related to selfselection of reading materials supports the notion that the books and stories that children find most interesting are those they have selected for their own reasons and purposes.

4. Opportunities to interact socially with others. Current theories of motivation recognize that learning is facilitated by social interactions with others. A number of recent studies have indicated that social collaboration promotes achievement, higher level cognition, and intrinsic desire to read.

5. Opportunities to become familiar with lots of books. Curiosity is acknowledged to be a driving force in motivation.

6. Appropriate reading-related incentives. The findings of a study suggest that if teachers are interested in developing an intrinsic desire to read, books are indeed the best reward. Extrinsic rewards that are strongly related to reading and reading behaviors can be used effectively to increase intrinsic motivation, particularly for children who do not have a literacy-rich background.

概念摘录：

Phonics

Phonics is the relationship between the letter and the sound it makes. If a student reads the word cat as /kuh-ah-tuh/…cat…he or she is reading phonetically. In this instance, you will most likely hear students read aloud. They are not able to read words silently because they are trying to make the letter-sound connection and they need to hear and see the letter-sound connection.

Head Start (program)

Head Start is a program of the United States Department of Health and Human Services that provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. The program's services and resources are designed to foster stable family relationships, enhance children's physical and emotional well-being, and establish an environment to develop strong cognitive skills. The transition from preschool to elementary school imposes diverse developmental challenges that include requiring the children to engage successfully with their peers outside of the family network, adjust to the space of a classroom, and meet the expectations the school setting provides.

Launched in 1965 by its creator and first director Jule Sugarman, Head Start was originally conceived as a catch-up summer school program that would teach low-income children in a few weeks what they needed to know to start elementary school. The Head Start Act of 1981 expanded the program. The program was revised when it was reauthorized in December 2007. Head Start is one of the longest-running programs attempting to address the effects of systemic poverty in the United States by intervening to aid children. As of late 2005, more than 22 million children had participated. The current director of Head Start is Blanca Enriquez, who was appointed in 2015.

ADD or ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type. It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person's age. The symptoms appear before a person is twelve years old, are present for more than six months, and cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities). In children, problems paying attention may result in poor school performance. Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting.

middle SES

Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation. When analyzing a family's SES, the household income, earners' education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, whereas for an individual's SES only their own attributes are assessed. However, SES is more commonly used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.

Socioeconomic status is typically broken into three levels (high, middle, and low) to describe the three places a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories, any or all of the three variables (income, education, and occupation) can be assessed.

Alphabetic principle

According to the alphabetic principle, letters and combinations of letters are the symbols used to represent the speech sounds of a language based on systematic and predictable relationships between written letters, symbols, and spoken words. The alphabetic principle is the foundation of any alphabetic writing system (such as the English variety of the Roman alphabet), which is one of the more common types of writing systems in use today.

Alphabetic writing systems that use an (in practice) almost perfectly phonemic orthography have a single letter for each individual speech sound and a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and the letters that represent them. Such systems are used, for example, in the modern languages Serbian (arguably, an example of perfect phonemic orthography), Estonian, Finnish, Italian, Romanian, Spanish, Georgian, Hungarian and Turkish. Such languages have a straightforward spelling system, enabling a writer to predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation and similarly enabling a reader to predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. Ancient languages with such almost perfectly phonemic writing systems include Avestic, Latin, Tamil, Vedic, and Sanskrit (Devanāgarī— an abugida; see Vyakarana). On the other hand, French and English have a strong difference between sounds and symbols.

Bloom's taxonomy

Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and sensory domains. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities.

The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.

The Ugly Duckling

"The Ugly Duckling" (Danish: Den grimme ælling) is a literary fairy tale by Danish poet and author Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875). The story tells of a homely little bird born in a barnyard who suffers abuse from the others around him until, much to his delight (and to the surprise of others), he matures into a beautiful swan, the most beautiful bird of all. The story is beloved around the world as a tale about personal transformation for the better. “The Ugly Duckling” was first published 11 November 1843, with three other tales by Andersen in Copenhagen, Denmark to great critical acclaim. The tale has been adapted to various media including opera, musical, and animated film. The tale is completely Andersen's invention and owes no debt to fairy tales or folklore.

Noah Webster's Blue-backed speller

As a teacher, Noah Webster had come to dislike American elementary schools. They could be overcrowded, with up to seventy children of all ages crammed into one-room schoolhouses. They had poor, underpaid staff, no desks, and unsatisfactory textbooks that came from England. Webster thought that Americans should learn from American books, so he began writing the three volume compendium A Grammatical Institute of the English Language. The work consisted of a speller (published in 1783), a grammar (published in 1784), and a reader (published in 1785). His goal was to provide a uniquely American approach to training children. His most important improvement, he claimed, was to rescue "our native tongue" from "the clamour of pedantry" that surrounded English grammar and pronunciation. He complained that the English language had been corrupted by the British aristocracy, which set its own standard for proper spelling and pronunciation. Webster rejected the notion that the study of Greek and Latin must precede the study of English grammar. The appropriate standard for the American language, argued Webster, was "the same republican principles as American civil and ecclesiastical constitutions." This meant that the people-at-large must control the language; popular sovereignty in government must be accompanied by popular usage in language.

Tone (linguistics)

In most languages, the pitch or pitch contour in which a syllable is pronounced conveys shades of meaning such as emphasis or surprise, or distinguishes a statement from a question. In tonal languages, however, the pitch affects the basic lexical meaning (e.g. "cat" vs. "dog") or grammatical meaning (e.g. past vs. present). In some languages, only the pitch itself (e.g. high vs. low) has this effect, while in others, especially East Asian languages such as Chinese, Thai or Vietnamese, the shape or contour (e.g. level vs. rising vs. falling) also needs to be distinguished.

Rime (the same as Rhyme)

The nucleus is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. The onset is the sound or sounds occurring before the nucleus, and the coda (literally 'tail') is the sound or sounds that follow the nucleus. They are sometimes collectively known as the shell. The term rime covers the nucleus plus coda. In the one-syllable English word cat, the nucleus is a (the sound that can be shouted or sung on its own), the onset c, the coda t, and the rime at.

Old Mother Hubbard

"Old Mother Hubbard" is an English-language nursery rhyme, first printed in 1805 and among the most popular publications of the nineteenth century. The exact origin and meaning of the rhyme is disputed. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19334. The first published version by Sarah Catherine Martin, wife of a Plymouth Royal Naval Officer is associated with an historic cottage in Yealmpton, Devon close by where Martin was staying.

Reading readiness

Reading readiness has been defined as the point at which a person is ready to learn to read and the time during which a person transitions from being a non-reader into a reader. Other terms for reading readiness include early literacy and emergent reading.

Children begin to learn pre-reading skills at birth while they listen to the speech around them. In order to learn to read, a child must first have knowledge of the oral language. According to the Ontario Government (2003), the acquisition of language is natural, but the process of learning to read is not - reading must be taught. This belief contradicts basic language philosophy, which states that children learn to read while they learn to speak. The Ontario Government (2003) also believes that reading is the foundation for success, and that those children who struggle with reading in grades 1-3 are at a disadvantage in terms of academic success, compared to those children who are not struggling.

Pasta sort

William and I first began by sorting by colors of the same shape. One attribute at a time. I asked William to help me find “the long, smooth pastas that look like this,” and I showed him exactly what I was looking for by finding several examples for him to look at.

Alphabet eggs

Three consonant clusters

Some syllables begin with three consonants, although the combinations are limited. The three consonants are called the pre-initial, the initial and the post-initial. The pre-initial consonant is always s, the initial consonant is always p, t or k and the post-initial consonant is always l, r, w or j. Examples are ‘splay’, ‘spray’, ‘spew’, ‘string’, ‘stew’, ‘sclerosis’, ‘screen’, ‘squeak’ and ‘skewer’.

The Night the Bed Fell

"The Night the Bed Fell" is a short story written by American author James Thurber. The story is a brief account of an event that took place at his house in Columbus, Ohio. It appears as chapter one of My Life and Hard Times.

My Life and Hard Times is the 1933 autobiography of James Thurber. It is considered his greatest work as he relates in bewildered deadpan prose the eccentric goings on of his family and the town beyond (Columbus, Ohio).

James Grover Thurber (December 8, 1894 – November 2, 1961) was an American cartoonist, author, humorist, journalist, playwright, and celebrated wit. He was best known for his cartoons and short stories published mainly in The New Yorker magazine, such as "The Catbird Seat," and collected in his numerous books. He was one of the most popular humorists of his time, as he celebrated the comic frustrations and eccentricities of ordinary people. He wrote the Broadway comedy The Male Animal in collaboration with his college friend Elliott Nugent; it was later adapted into a film starring Henry Fonda and Olivia de Havilland. His short story "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty(白日梦想家)" has been adapted for film twice, once in 1947 and again in 2013.

The Mischievous Dog

The Mischievous Dog is one of Aesop's Fables, of which there is a Greek version by Babrius and a Latin version by Avianus. It is numbered 332 in the Perry Index. The story concerns a dog that bites the legs of others. Its master therefore ties a bell around its neck to warn people. The dog, thinking the bell is a reward, shows it off in the streets until an older dog reminds him that the bell is not a reward but a sign of disgrace. Victorian editors of the fables supplied the moral that 'notoriety is often mistaken for fame'.

Peabody Language Development kit

The Peabody is designed to stimulate oral development in children whose linguistic age is between 6-8 years. In addition to stimulating oral language development, other goals are to improve intellectual function which is intended to enhance progress in academics. The daily lessons concentrate on the development of cognitive processes involving divergent, convergent and associative thinking (Dunn, 1966).

单词摘录：

At this stage, students need a lot of exposure to activities that cause them to have to attend to letter-sound relationships.

They are able to make sense of words, grammar, and punctuation.

Use spelling patterns and morphological patterns to decode words

Other words with the sound /b/ are solicited.

Begins with direct instruction of phonic elements, beginning with letters of the alphabet, followed by syllables, then monosyllabic words through polysyllabic words, then phrase, and finally whole sentences.

Inductive: Begins by giving examples illustrating a generalization and guiding the children to a conclusion.

Deductive: Children are told the generalization and then asked for examples to verify it.

Being able to read independently regardless of social or economic backgrounds

Integrated with ongoing classroom instruction in spelling

Reading achievement in the United States continues to be stagnant

Children do not simply outgrow reading problems.

It is the hallmark of beginning reading.

At this stage students leave out vowels because it’s the “music” of language and they already assume the music of language so they pay attention to the “noise” — the consonants.

Relying on letter name and the way it feels in the mouth (point of articulation)

Weekly spelling pretests and posttest also yield information.

Choral reading

In short, struggling readers need more than effective short-term interventions.

For teachers using the BCP as the organizational structure for their entire reading program, trade books (nonacademic, i.e. textbooks) are the sole materials used for the reading component.

Provides opportunities for students to work both independently and with others on authentic literacy tasks

Present the information they learned to their peers through communications such as written reports, oral presentations and artistic endeavors.

Listens to students read while taking anecdotal notes

The preschool or early kindergarten program is implemented in the preschool program or during the first semester in kindergarten and uses a thematically based curriculum that is intended to develop oral language, literacy, listening skills, numeracy, creative expression and positive self-esteem.

Teacher tells the students something about the book being read, discusses some of the challenging vocabulary, elicits students’ predictions.

Using a shared story text with the teacher reading part of the story and the students reading mostly phonetically regular words or words with rebus clues

It is generally acknowledged that motivation plays a critical role in learning. It often makes the difference between learning that is superficial and shallow and learning that is deep and internalized.

Research suggests that teachers who love reading and are avid readers themselves have students who have higher reading achievement than do students of teachers who rarely read.

I believe you can do it! What seems to be the impossible is possible unto you. I wish you well and great success!