象术语[L-Z]A GLOSSARY OF ELEPHANT T

国内一直欠缺一套大象相关词语的术语汇总，相互讨论时也常缺乏一个标准，有时甚至没有对应的翻译。本文是大象爱好者鶽鴞对A GLOSSARY OF ELEPHANT TERMS(Kahl & Santiapillar, 2004)象术语一文的翻译，其中很多翻译可能不准确，欢迎指正。在现在看来，2004年的这篇文章存在一些问题，如用词不准确、术语不再使用等，译者尽量按原文翻译，不做修正。发出此文，仅供交流。格式问题已尽力。

引文出处：Kahl M P, Santiapillai C. Aglossary of elephant terms[J]. Gajah, 2004, 23: 1-36.

文本出处：

https://www.elephantvoices.org/multimedia-resources/elephant-terms-glossary.html

Lactating female哺乳象:[又见: nursing哺乳] (Lee 1987:280)分泌乳汁的雌象。Female who is producing milk.

Lactational anestrus哺乳乏情期:[see also: inter-calf interval] (Hanks 1972b:18; Williamson 1976:90)哺乳雌象不进入发情状态的雌象，无法怀孕。通常2-4年乏情期，导致4-6年的生殖间隔（因环境条件恶劣，可能造成更长的间隔）Period during lactation in which afemale does not come into estrus and, therefore, does not conceive. Usuallylasts 2-4 yrs, resulting in 4-6 year interval between births (extreme intervalscan be much wider, depending on environmental conditions).

Laibat胸带:(Gale 1974:158)拉拽装置固定在大象胸部的带状物Breast-band which ispart of the dragging gear.

Lanugo胎毛:(McKay 1973:73; Eltringham 1982:12)指新生象身上细绒的胎毛。Termfor the fetal-hair remaining on a newborn; the fine hair on the body of thefetus.

Lateral recumbency侧式躺:[又见：sternal recumbency胸式卧](McKenzie 1993:681)以身体一侧支撑的躺卧。Lying on the side.

Lohitiya(Hindustani):[see also: mela-shikar] (Daniel 1998:211)需要校长象提速时，持续刺击大象尾的基部。Manwho hangs on behind and prods the koonkie near the root of the tail when speedis required.

Lop-ear垂耳:[同: floppy-ear] (Sikes 1971:120,204)部分象耳向前翻折或以异常角度下垂的病态。可能源于动脉疾病或受伤。Pathologicalcondition in which a portion of the ear is folded forward and hangs down at anabnormal angle. May be due to arterial disease or injury.

Lumbar腰椎:(McKenzie 1993:681)最末肋骨和骨盆之间的背部区域。Area of the backbetween the last rib and the pelvis.

Lumbar depression腰椎洼陷:(Albl 1971:134,135,137,139,140)腰椎部分纵向的洼陷，洼陷的程度反映了身体的状况。Alongitudinal depression in the lumbar region of the sides of the spine; depthis a good indication of physical-condition.

Machan(Hindustani):(Gale 1974:158)隐蔽、伪装的平台，用以射击或拍摄。Platform used forshooting or photographing; a hide or blind.

Mahout(Hindustani)象夫（印度斯坦语）: [其他称谓also: carnac,carnax, cawadie (S. India), cornac, kornack (French; possibly originallySinhalese), mahawat, oozie/uzi (Burma), ponnekella (Sri Lanka), kao-Chang(Thailand); pawang (Indonesia)] (Tennent 1867:122; Jayewardene 1994:52,121; Cannon& Davis 1995:109,112,172; Iversen 1995:66; Lair 1997:85,209-211;Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:458)训练、看护、驾驭大象的人员。Trainer,keeper, driver of an elephant.

Male-male Mounting雄雄爬跨:[同:股间交配femoral copulation,股间性交interfemoral intercourse] (Ford & Beach1951:274; Kahl & Armstrong 2000:20)一只雄性爬跨另一只雄性，在大腿内侧摩擦阴茎，常伴随射精。通常发生在无成功交配经验的年轻雄象身上。Sexualmounting of one male by another. Penis is rubbed on inside of thighs;ejaculation often occurs, penetration does not. Generally found among youngadult males, who have little success in mating with mature females.

Maligawa tusker(Sinhalese): (Cannon & Davis 1995:172)在斯里兰卡康堤，每年7、8月背负佛像圣物行进的长牙象的统称。Genericterm for the tusked elephant that carries the relics of the Buddha in the Kandy,Sri Lanka, procession [= Esala perahera] in July/August each year.

Mammae乳腺:分泌乳汁的腺体。象的乳房位于前肢之间（胸位乳房）。Mammary glands or breasts thatsecrete milk. In elephants they are between the front legs (i.e. pectoralmammae).

Mandible下颌骨:[又见: maxilla上颌骨] (McKenzie1993:681)下颚Lower jaw.

Manswe(Burmese)断牙块（缅甸语）: [see also: swe-pyat, swe-byat ](Daniel 1998:93)雄象争斗中撞断的象牙块。Tusk, or piece of tusk,broken off in a fight between two bulls; a good luck charm that should be kept.

Marfi:[also: karivenna (Malayalam), kankushta (Hindustani); see also: ordure] (Menon,et al. 1997:40); Capstick 1991:182)大象粪便Elephant dung.

Masturbation自慰:[又见: Male-Male Mounting雄雄爬跨] (Kühme 1961:290[drawing]; Kühme1963:117)非正常雌雄交配的性满足行为Sexual gratification by otherthan normal male-female copulation.

Mate-searching配偶搜索:[又见: estrus发情, musth狂暴] (Poole et al. 1988:386,391; Poole & Moss 1989)搜索发情的、可接纳的异性Process of searching for a suitable, receptivemember of the opposite sex.

Matriarch象族长:(Buss 1990:30-32; Estes 1991:2560; Moss & Colbeck 1992:155-156)家庭中充当领导的成年雌象；通常是象群中最年长、富有经验的个体Mature female who acts asleader of a family unit; typically the eldest and most experienced individualin the group.

Matriarchal family母系家庭:[同: family, family unit家族,matriarchal unit母系单位;又见:social organization社群组成]成年雌象及其后代组成的象群；安博塞利象群家族大小2-45头Group of related mature females and their young; rangingbetween 2-45 individuals (@ Amboseli, Kenya). See discussion under family unit.

Maturity, sexual性成熟:[又见: puberty青春期] (Laws1969:193,197-198,214-215; Hanks 1972b:13,17,19,20; Williamson 1976:89,90,91;Buss 1990:110-111,175; Poole 1994:335-337)性器官成熟足以完成繁殖的年龄；通常雌性在9-12岁，雄性14-15岁。在不利的环境条件下（如高种群密度），成熟可能延迟至20岁左右(Laws 1969:197,214)。对于野生雄象，生理成熟不意味着能完成交配。成功交配往往延迟到雄性长得足够强壮并达到狂暴状态，一般要达到29岁。对于圈养象，两性成熟均提前（如雌性甚至提前4年[Dieringer1997]）。Age at which reproduction becomes physicallypossible; approximately 9-12 years for females, 14-15 years for males. Underadverse environmental conditions (e.g. very high population-densities) maturitymay be delayed until 20±years (Laws 1969:197,214). Incaptivity, both sexes may reach sexual maturity much earlier (e.g. 4±years in a female [Dieringer 1997]). Especially in wildmales, physical maturity does not mean they will mate successfully. Successfulmating is often delayed until males become significantly larger and attainmusth, at 29+ years of age.

Maxilla上颌骨:[又见: mandible下颌骨] (McKenzie1993:681)上颚Upper jaw.

Meconium胎粪:(Poole 1996:94)出生后不久胎儿排出的粪便。Fetal stool, passed by anewborn an hour or so after birth.

Meergah(Hindustani):[also: meerga, meergha, mirga, mrga ; see also: sowari] (Sanderson1907:83,84,84x[drawing],85; Sanderson 1962:260; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:458)体型纤瘦、体轻、腿长、头小的大象，缺乏毅力和胆量，比koomeriah速度快。适于运输、载物或拉车。Sanderson(1907: 84)认为这不是一类受欢迎的大象。Long-legged elephant, favoredfor use as a transport animal and taught to carry loads on its back or haulcarts. According to Sanderson (1907: 84) it is not a very desirable elephant. Abody-type: thin, long legs, small head, light body; usually faster than thekoomeriah, but lacking in courage and endurance.

Mela(Hindustani)象集（印度斯坦语）: [see also: bazaar, elephant] (Shand1992:5,27,158-193; Hall 2000:35)指的是大象被展示和售卖的集会。世界上最大的象集每年11月在印度比哈尔邦的桑纳普尔镇，恒河和甘达基河交汇处。A fair; in this case an elephant fair,where elephants are bought and sold. The largest in the world is an annualaffair [November], held at Sonpur/Sonepur at the confluence of the Ganges andGandak Rivers in Bihar, India.

Mela-shikar(Hindustani)套象（印度斯坦语）: [also: kyaw-hpan (Burmese), petishikar; see also: phandi] (Shand 1996:38,150-151; Lair1997:114,148,214,223,251; Daniel 1998:210; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:459; Hall2000:35)起源于印度阿萨姆邦，象夫在驯化象的背上使用绳套捕捉野生象的方法。Method ofelephant-capture - originating in Assam, India - using nooses by men mounted ontrained elephants; a method of catching single elephants, one-by-one.

Metestrus动情后期:[同: metoestrus/metoestrous动情后期;又见: estrus发情期, pre-estrus动情前期, diestrus间情期] (Arey, et al.1957:384,826)雌性哺乳动物发情过后卵泡功能消退的阶段。Period of subsidingfollicular function following estrus in female mammals.

Migration迁徙:[又见: home-range家域] (Owen-Smith1982:389; Buss 1990:5-7,11; Shoshani 1992:54)从一个区域到另一个区域固定、季节性的迁移Regular,seasonal movement from one area to another.

Milk-tusk乳长牙:(Spinage 1994:217-218; Shoshani 1996:14; Luckett 1996:26)乳长牙为乳齿，一岁左右会被恒齿代替，换为不断生长的真长牙。Sameas deciduous-tusk or deciduous incisors, which are better terms; these are thedeciduous precursors of the true tusks, which replace them after about one yearof age.

Miombo(Kiswahili):(Pratt, et al. 1966:380; Barnes & Douglas-Hamilton 1982:412; Spinage1994:173)斯瓦西里语，在东非、非洲中部和中南部，一种落叶阔叶树、灌丛混合的林地，以短盖属Brachystegia和 热非豆属Julbernardia为优势。In East,central, and south-central Africa, a type of mixed woodland of both trees andshrubs, dominated by broadleafed, deciduous trees of the genera Brachystegiaand Julbernardia.

Mkono wa tembo(Kiswahili):斯瓦西里语，字面指大象的手臂，即象鼻。Literally,"the arm of an elephant". Used to refer to an elephant's trunk.

Moda莫达:[see also: juvenile-musth弱狂暴] (Chandrasekharan et al.1992:71-72; Rasmussen et al. 2002:975) Pre-musth condition sometimes shown byyoung [11-20 years old] males in captivity.

Molar臼齿:(Laws 1966:3-16; Roth & Shoshani 1988; Buss 1990:58-67)后磨齿。在象的一生中拥有六组臼齿，位于上下颚两侧；象到了特定年龄会更换臼齿：随着前臼齿的磨损，颚末端不断长出新臼齿、向前推移，磨损的臼齿不断被替代。Reargrinding teeth. During their lifetime, elephants have six sets of molars ineach half of the upper and lower jaws; they progress forward, in linearprogression toward the distal end of the jaw, and replace each other atspecific ages.

Monitor elephant监测象:[又见: koonkie] (Cannon & Davis 1995:92,172)用以捕捉或控制野象的驯养象Tame elephant, used to capture and control wildelephants.

Mon-kyathi(Burmese):[also: mon-kyatti, mong-gyin ] (Daniel 1998:123)缅甸语狂暴态的说法。Burmeseterm for musth.

Monovular单卵的:[又见:多卵的polyovular](Hanks1979:168)一次排出一个卵子Ovulation of one egg at a time.

Mortality死亡率:(Buss 1990:12-17,37; Moss 2001:152-153)指死亡比率或种群数量的减少；死亡原因包括疾病、事故、饥饿、捕食等。Referringto the death-rate, or loss, in a population; includes factors such as disease,accidents, starvation, predation.

Mukhna(Hindustani):[also: mukna, muckna, makna, makhna ] (Sanderson 1907: 53,66,119; Sanderson1962: 15,190; Chadwick 1992:304-305; Sukumar 1992:35,165; Lair 1997:40[photo]; Daniel1998:60-61; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:458)印度对无牙雄象的称谓。长牙雄象在种群中的比例，印度南部为90%，印度北部50%，斯里兰卡5-10%。Shand（1992）表示无牙雄象存在某些自卑情结，有时异常危险。Termfor tuskless male elephants in India. Approximately 90% of bulls in S. India,50% in N. India, and 5-10% in Sri Lanka do carry tusks. [The term is aliya orpussa in Sri Lanka; the term is sidor in Thailand; the term is haing or hine inBurma (Daniel 1998:145; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:411); the name is tondo inMozambique (Capstick 1988:90).] A male without tusks suffers from aninferiority complex and is often very dangerous (Shand 1992:6).

Multiparous female一胎多仔雌象:[又见: nulliparous未经产,primiparous初产] (Lee 1987:279-280)一胎产多于两头象的雌象。Afemale that has given birth to two or more offspring.

Murrain家畜传染病:(Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:40,458)致命的流行病，通常为炭疽病。见于牛和象间的传染，家养和野生均存在。Fatalepidemic disease; probably anthrax. It is found in cattle and elephants, bothwild and domesticated.

Musth(Urdu/Hindustani)狂暴:[同: mada, madha, mast, mudda, must ;又见:sexually-active/inactive性活跃/性休止](Jainudeen, et al. 1972; Poole & Moss 1981; Hall-Martin 1987; Poole 1987;Poole 1989a)源自吠陀梵语的词（mada），意为“中毒，兴奋，狂喜”。成年雄性高度性兴奋的时期[平均开始于29岁]，外在特征包括滴尿urine-dribbling、阴茎变色G.P.、刺激气味、攻击性提高、颞腺肿胀、颞液分泌T.G.S.和高睾酮水平等。有时被称为“性狂乱sexual insanity”(Williams1989:125)。Musth（狂暴液）有时也特指雄性亚洲象颞腺分泌的刺激性黑色油状液体；但对于雌雄均分泌颞液的非洲象不适用[Theterm is mudda or madha in Sri Lanka; mon-kyathi, mon-kyatti, mone, or mong-gyinin Burma.]。。From the ancient Sanskrit word (mada )which means "intoxication, excitement, rapture". Period of heightenedsexual-activity in mature males [average onset 29 years-old], characterized byurine-dribbling, G.P., strong odor, increased aggression, swollen temporalglands, T.G.S., and elevated testosterone-levels. Sometimes called a form of"sexual insanity" (Williams 1989:125). Musth has also been used torefer to the dark, strong-smelling, oily substance exuded from a male Asianelephant's temporal gland, although this term is not used for African elephantswhere both sexes secrete from the temporal glands. [The term is mudda or madhain Sri Lanka; mon-kyathi, mon-kyatti, mone, or mong-gyin in Burma.]

Musth, stages of狂暴阶段:[又见: pro-musth狂暴前期, near-musth近狂暴期, peri-musth狂暴期, inter-musth狂暴间期] (Poole, et al. 1984:259; Poole 1987:304; Schulte &Rasmussen 1999a:385,387)近狂暴期（near-musth或peri-musth）包括狂暴前期（pro-, pre-musth）和狂暴后期（post-musth）。全狂暴期（Full-musth）意为狂暴顶点的状态，与深狂暴（deep-musth）、重狂暴（heavy-musth）意思相同。Near-musth is the same as peri-musth, and includespro-musth [before], pre-musth [before] and post-musth [after]. Full-musth isthe same as deep-musth and heavy-musth and denotes the peak condition of musth.

Musth gland狂暴腺:[又见: temporal gland颞腺] (Laursen& Bekoff 1978:2; Estes 1991:259; Shoshani 1998:480)位于眼和耳之间垂直的裂缝状开口，分泌颞液。颞腺比狂暴腺更合适，因其分泌液不总与狂暴态有关（如雌象、幼象中，特别是对于非洲象）Gland,with a vertical slit-like opening, located between the eye and ear whichproduces temporal gland secretion. Temporal gland is a much better name than"musth gland", as its secretion sometimes has nothing to do withmusth (e.g. in females and young, especially of Loxodonta).

Natality出生率:[又见: recruitment种群补充] (Hanks1972b:13,20; Calef 1988; Buss 1990:86,93-94)指种群的出生率，通常每年6-8%的出生率意味着健康的象种群。Referring to the birth-rate in a population.Usually 6-8% per year, in a healthy elephant population.

Nautch-khana(language ?):[see also: bai, salt-lick] (Shand 1996:121)一处缺乏植被的森林空场，为大象的交际场。Aclearing in the forest that is devoid of vegetation; the elephants' ballroom.

Near-musth近狂暴态:[又见: musth, stages of; inter-musth, peri-musth] (Pooleet al. 1984:259; Rasmussen et al. 1984:354,358; Poole 1987:295)紧邻狂暴高潮前后的时期，睾酮水平部分提高，表现出部分狂暴行为。在年轻雄象身上，被称为弱狂暴（juvenile-musth）。象夫称之为科尔狂暴kherr musth (McGaughey 1963:105)。Periodimmediately before and after full-musth, when testosterone levels may bepartially elevated and some - but not all - of the manifestations of full-musthare seen. When shown by young males, it may be called juvenile-musth. Mahoutscall it kherr musth (McGaughey 1963:105).

Nerve-cavity神经腔:[同: pulp-cavity髓腔] (Laursen& Bekoff 1978:2)象牙中空的部分，充满散布血管、淋巴窦的间叶组织Hollow of atusk, filled primarily with mesenchymal connective tissue with vascular andlymph sinuses.

Netsuke(Japanese)根付（日语）: (Chadwick 1992:207)日本的一种工艺品，由过去日常使用的物品发展来，根付卡在腰带上用以悬挂随身的提物（kimono）。象牙根付是其中一类。。Round ornaments - often made of ivory - with ahole in the center, used in Japan to secure the sash of a kimono.

Nictitating-membrane瞬膜:(Sikes 1971:43)半透明的第三眼睑，湿润、保护眼球、不影响视力；在象中约4X1厘米大小。Unpigmented third eyelid, approximately 4 X 1 cm insize.

Nila(Sanskrit ?):(Sikes 1971:137; Deraniyagala 1955:68-70,140-142; Cannon & Davis1995:109,111,132,172)亚洲象的知觉点，也是象夫的刺激点，用以约束、控制、引导大象。Sensorypoints on an [Asian] elephant, which may be stimulated by the mahout todiscipline, control, or direct the animal.

Nipples乳头:(Kardong 1998:213[drawing])表皮的乳头状突起，内含多条输乳管，为婴儿输送乳汁。哺乳动物普遍具有；人和象为有乳头的胸乳。[乳头"Teats"一词有时被用错在象身上，Teats包括一个乳腺池和一条输卵管；一般在偶蹄动物身上发现，如鹿、羊、牛]Raised epidermal papillathat include multiple lactiferous ducts, releasing milk to the infant. They areprevalent among mammals; humans and elephants have pectoral mammae withnipples. ["Teats", sometimes erroneously said to be found inelephants, include a cistern and a single lactiferous duct; they are found inderived artiodactyls, such as deer, sheep, cows.]

Nulliparous female未经产雌象:[又见: multiparous多产的,primiparous初产的] (Lee 1987:279-280)未怀孕或未产仔的雌性。Afemale that has not conceived or given birth.

Nursing/nurse哺乳:[又见: lactating female哺乳雌性,weaning断奶, comfort suckling安抚性哺乳,suckle吸吮] (Moss & Colbeck 1992:90,144-145; Shoshani1992:53,54)从母亲处获得乳汁。To obtain milk from the mother.

Nursing unit育幼组:[又见: juvenile-care unit护幼组](McKay 1973:72-75,79-80)亚洲象中，雌象和幼象的组合。Type of familyunit among Elephas in which females and infant calves occur.

Nyika(Kiswahili):[also: osilalei (Maasai)] (Pratt, et al. 1966:381; Spinage 1994:187)没药属-金合欢属带刺灌丛，在肯尼亚东南部和坦桑尼亚大部分常见。Commiphora-Acaciathorn scrub, found in much of SE Kenya and Tanzania.

Oozie(Burmese):[also: oozy, oozi, uzi ; see also: mahout]缅甸语对象夫的叫法。(Williams1950:50-56; Williams 1989:124,127-128,135; Lair 1997:129) Trainer, keeper,driver of an elephant.

Ordure排泄物:[see also: marfi] (Stockley 1953:94,95-96)粪便温和的说法。Another,more gentle, name for dung.

Ovarian cycle排卵周期:(Moss 1983:179,180,181; Brannian et al. 1988:357,359,363; Plotka et al.1988:309,310,312,314)两次排卵的间期，在象中通常认为12-17周。Period between ovulations, in females that do not becomepregnant during their first cycle. Generally believed to be12-17 weeks in Loxodonta and Elephas.

Pachyderm厚皮动物:(McKenzie 1993:682)对于大型、皮厚的有蹄哺乳动物（如大象、犀牛）的称呼，已弃用的分类用语。Historicalname for large, thick-skinned hoofed mammal (e.g. elephant, rhino). Not anatural taxomonic grouping.

Pakala(Sanskrit):(Edgerton 1931:26,104,120)大象发烧A fever of elephants.

Pan硬磐:(Greaves 1996:131; Ben-Shahar 1999:316)在南部非洲，一些区域土层聚集钙质，形成钙质硬磐层，在雨后能形成水坑。Insouthern Africa, another name for a waterhole or depression that fills duringthe rains. The bottom is permeated with calcium (calcrete), which forms a hardpan that holds water.

Pannikan(Sinhalese):[also: Pannikers, Panickeas] (Tennent 1867:97; Jayewardene 1994:121; Cannon& Davis 1995:87-88,173)在斯里兰卡北部和东北部，以捕捉大象知名的穆斯林部落。Muslimtribe in N and NE Sri Lanka, known for capturing elephants.

Parturition分娩:(Ford & Beach 1951:283) Giving birth.

Pawang(Indonesian)象夫（印尼语）: (Lair 1997:85) Indonesian name for amahout or elephant-handler.

Peak frequency峰频[缩写P.F.abbreviated P.F.]:[又见: fundamental frequency, dominant frequency] (Berg1983:65)象声中最高的频率Highest frequency of sound in anelephant vocalization.

Pejeik(Burmese):(Gale 1974:159)缅甸语中，为象夫做零活的随从。Attendant who does oddjobs for the oozie.

Pengasoh(Malay)养母（马来语）: [see also: auntie] (Daniel 1998:102)Foster-mother.

Perahera(Sinhalese):(Jayewardene 1994:121; Cannon & Davis 1995:135-149,173)僧伽罗语中，指宗教活动中列队行进的象群。InSri Lanka, a procession--mainly of a religious nature--in which domesticatedelephants often participate.

Peri-musth近狂暴:[又见: musth, stages of狂暴期;inter-musth狂暴间期, near-musth近狂暴](Poole et al. 1984:259; Rasmussen et al. 1984:354,358; Poole 1987:295)同近狂暴near-musth

Phand(language ?)套象索:[see also: mela-shikar] (Shand 1996:38,150; Daniel 1998:211,212)捕捉野生象所用的索套。Noose used to capture elephants, by a rider on theback of another [domesticated] elephant.

Phandi(language ?)套象人:[also: nooser; see also mela-shikar] (Shand 1996:38; Lair 1997:67; Hall2000:35,245,249)使用索套捕捉野象的骑象人。bor-phandi套象高手。Rider who captures wild elephants with a noose, from theback of a domesticated elephant. A bor-phandi is a master catcher.

Phara(language ?):(Shand 1996:150)套象时绕在校长象胸部的宽带。A broad belt that iswound around the chest of the koonkie during mela-shikar.

Pil-khana(Hindustani/Urdu)象圈（印度斯坦语/乌尔都语）: [also:pil khana, pilkhana, peelkhana, pheel] (Sanderson 1907:91,125; Sukumar 1994:152,169;Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:459)通常为固定圈养大象的地方，如象厩、营地或训练地Stable,camp, or training place - usually permanent - where domestic elephants arekept.

Piosphere水源圈:(Western 1973; Ayeni 1977:376)由于靠近水源，周边区域受水源地生态影响作用（如破坏）后形成的景观Areaaround a water-source that shows ecological effects (i.e. damage), owing toproximity to that water-source.

Poaching盗猎:(Poole 1989b)非法猎杀，通常为了象牙，有时也为了获取象肉。可能对象社群结构造成严重的后果。Illegalkilling, usually for the ivory, but can also be for meat. May have seriouseffects on social structure of the population.

Pocketed herd孤立象群:(Seidensticker 1984:12; Sukumar & Santiapillai 1996:329)一群被局限在较小区域的象，无法脱离；通常被人类主导环境包围。可以理解为“人类海洋中的象岛”。Groupof elephants confined in a relatively small area, from which they are unable toleave; usually surrounded by human development. May be thought of as"islands of elephants in a sea of humanity".

Polyovular多卵的:[see also:monovular] (Hanks 1979:168)Ovulation of two or more eggs at a time.

Population种群:[又见: social organization社群](Moss & Poole 1983:315,318,322)地区全部的象，包括雌幼象的亚种群和成年雄性；在雨季集群时，种群成员常会相互接触。Allthe elephants in a region, including sub-populations of females and theiroffspring, plus the adult males; they may all have some contact with eachother, especially during the wet-season when large aggregations may form.

Population-density种群密度:[又见: home-range家域] (Spinage1990:15,16,17; Barnes, et al. 1999)某区域单位面积下大象的平均数量Averagenumber of elephants per unit area in a region; usually given as elephants/km2.

Post-pubertal后青春期:[又见see also: pre-pubertal前青春期](Hanks1979:168)雌性至少排卵一次，雄性产生精子A female that hasovulated at least once, or amale that has produced sperm.

Pouch, pharyngeal咽袋:(Sikes 1971:79; Shoshani, et al. 1997; Shoshani 1998:485; Shoshani & Dudley2000)口腔底壁上一个可以容纳水的凹陷；储存的水可以再被抽出，喷洒在耳朵上以降低体温。Areceptacle in the floor of the mouth, in which water can be stored; such watercan be drawn out, later, and sprayed on the ears to cool the body-temperature.

Pranidhi(Sanskrit)驾象术:(Edgerton 1931:120)象夫驱使大象的方法，如使用号令、脚踢或象钩。Direction;methods of a mahout in driving an elephant...by means of verbal commands, feet,and hook.

Pre-estrus动情前期:[also: proestrus; see also: estrus, diestrus, metestrus] (Arey, et al.1957:384,1110; Jainudeen, et al. 1971:323; Poole & Moss 1989:120)发情前期卵泡增长的阶段，雌象仅表现部分发情行为。Period of heightened follicularactivity preceding true estrus.Cow mayexhibit some - but not all - of the signs of estrus.

Pregnancy怀孕:[see also: gestation period] (Buss 1990:31; Moss & Colbeck 1992:52-53) Havingconceived but not yet borne an offspring.

Pre-musth狂暴前期:[同: pro-musth] (Fernando, et al. 1963:111)全狂暴前期，狂暴行为逐渐显露；可能由血液中逐渐升高的睾酮造成。Period before full-musth,during which the manifestations of musth slowly begin to appear; most likelycaused by a gradual increase in testosterone levels in the blood.

Pre-pubertal前青春期:[又见: post-pubertal后青春期](Hanks1979:168)由于年龄不足，雌性还没有排卵，或雄性未产生精子。A female thathas not yet ovulated, or a male that has not yet produced sperm-owing to youngage.

Primiparous female初产雌性:[又见: multiparous多产的,nulliparous未经产的] (Lee 1987:279-280)初次怀孕、即将分娩的雌性Afemale that has conceived and is about to give or has given birth to oneoffspring.

Problem Elephant Control问题象管理: [= P.E.C.] (Poole 1996:254)应对问题象（多次破坏围栏、庄稼、攻击家畜和人等行为）的方法。通常采用转移、排斥（如挖沟或电围栏等）或杀死等方法。Meansof dealing with "problem elephants" - repeat offenders of certainelephantine crimes, such as fence-breaking, crop-raiding, killing of livestockand humans. Solution is sometimes translocation or exclusion (i.e. withditches, electric-fencing) or, often, killing.

Proboscidean长鼻动物:(Shoshani & Tassy 1996; Nelson 1997:24)长鼻目动物的成员。拥有像上肢般灵活长鼻的动物，包括现存和灭绝的象及近亲。Amember of the order Proboscidea. Elephants and elephant-relatives - living andextinct - with a long, flexible snout, such as a trunk.

Proboscis象鼻:[又见: trunk象鼻] (Sikes1971:39-41; Shoshani 1997)象上唇和鼻延长形成肌肉发达、上肢般灵活的长鼻。Thelong, muscular, prehensile extension of an elephant's upper-lip and nose.

Protected-contact保护性接触:[又见: free-contact自由接触] (Doyle1993)通过保护性栅栏对无约束的圈养象进行管理。Managing unconfined captiveelephants through or from behind a shielding barrier.

Puberty青春期:[又见: maturity, sexual性成熟] (Laws1969:193,197-198,214-215; Hanks 1972b:13,17,19,20; Williamson 1976:89,90,91;Buss 1990:110-111,175; Poole 1994:335-337)性器官成熟足以完成繁育的年龄；雌性通常在9-12岁，雄性14-15岁。在不利的环境条件下（如高种群密度），成熟可能延迟至20岁左右(Laws 1969:197,214)。对于野生雄性，生理成熟不意味着能完成交配；成功交配往往延迟到雄性长得足够大并达到狂暴状态，一般要达到29岁。对于圈养象，两性成熟均提前（如雌性提前4年左右[Dieringer1997]）。Age at which reproduction becomes possible;approximately 9-12 years for females, 14-15 years for males. Under adverseenvironmental conditions (e.g. very high population-densities) maturity may bedelayed until 20±years (Laws 1969:197,214). Incaptivity, both sexes may reach sexual maturity much earlier (e.g. 4±years in a female [Dieringer 1997]). Especially in wildmales, maturity does not mean they will mate successfully. Successful mating isoften delayed until they attain musth, at 29+ years of age.

Pulp髓:(Laursen & Bekoff 1978:2)象牙空腔内[髓腔pulp-cavity,神经腔nerve-cavity]的物质，主要为散布血管、淋巴窦的间叶组织Materialthat fills the hollow [pulp-cavity, nerve-cavity] of a tusk; it is composedprimarily of mesenchymal connective tissue with vascular and lymph sinuses.

Pulp-cavity髓腔:[同: nerve-cavity] (Laursen & Bekoff 1978:2)象牙内的空腔Hollow of a tusk, filled primarily with mesemchymalconnective tissue with vascular and lymph sinuses.

Pussa(Sinhalese)无牙象:[see also: mukna] (Deraniyagala 1955:48; Jayewardene 1994:20; Cannon &Davis 1995:38; Katugaha 1997:67)在斯里兰卡，对无牙雄象的称谓。In SriLanka, a tuskless male; a male with no vestige of tusks or tushes.

Pygmy elephant矮象:(Noack 1906; Western 1986; Matthiessen 1991:135-138)曾被认为是中/西非热带雨林中小型化的象(Loxodonta africana pumilio)。现在证实是森林象的青年个体，L.cyclotis。与矮化象有区别。Reputed small form of elephants(Loxodonta africana pumilio), in the Central/West African rain-forests. Nowbelieved to be young individuals of the forest elephant, L. cyclotis. To bedistinguised from dwarf elephant [q.v.].

Recruitment种群补充:[又见: natality出生率] (Calef 1988;Spinage 1990:15; Spinage 1994:184)种群数量增加，通常是出生率大于死亡率的结果；也可能由于迁入造成。Increasein a population, usually as the result of births exceeding deaths; may also beaugmented by immigration.

Reinforcement强化:(Shyan 1993:23)在动物行为训练中，强化学习或增加响应出现的概率。当行为响应出现时，正向强化通过给予“好/愉快”[积极]的结果以增加响应出现的概率，负向强化通过使“坏/不愉快”[消极]的结果消失以增加目标响应出现的概率。Inanimal training, any condition that strengthens learning or increases theprobability that a response will occur. Positive reinforcement increases thelikelihood that a response will be performed by giving it a"good/pleasant" [positive] consequence after the response hasoccurred, whereas negative reinforcement also increases the likelihood that aresponse will be performed to avoid a "bad/unpleasant" [negative]consequence.

Reproductive cycling繁殖周期:[又见: estrus, flatlining发情期](Laws 1969:205; Laws, Parker, & Johnstone 1970:174; Hanks 1972b:13,21,25;Williamson 1976:91; Shoshani 1992:57; Moss 2001:150-151,155)非怀孕雌性排卵的周期性。对于安博塞利的雌象，繁殖率在18-19岁达到最高，40-50岁后逐渐降低，56-60岁后基本停止。在野生象中，缺乏繁殖完全停止的记录（有时被称为更年期"menopause"）Periodic ovulation of mature non-pregnant females; rate ofreproductive life. In wild female elephants [@ Amboseli, Kenya] thereproductive-rate seems to peak by 18-19 years, slows after about 40-50 years,and nearly ceases by 56-60 years of age. We have little evidence of completecessation of breeding (sometimes referred to as "menopause") in wildelephants.

Retirement area养老区:[又见: bull area雄象区,sexually-active/inactive性活跃/性休止](Moss & Poole 1983:318; Estes 1991:261; Moss & Colbeck 1992:50,109,111)主要被性休止状态雄性（个体或雄象群）占据的区域。当雄性开始性活跃起来，便离开养老区去寻找雌性；但结束后会回到原先的养老区。Regioninhabited mainly by bulls - either singly or in bull groups - in asexually-inactive condition. When they become sexually-active, bulls leave theretirement area and associate with females; individual bulls usually return tothe same retirement area after their period of association with females.

Rogue离群象:(Williams 1950:41,139-147; Deraniyagala 1955:148; Carrington 1958:51; Estes1991:267)攻击性强、危险象的术语，多数为雄象，也可能受伤、染病或处在狂暴期。它们对人类怀有恨意。[InSri Lanka, the term is hora allia or hora or sora (from Sanskrit chora) orronkedoors (Dutch).]。Vernacular term for a particularlyaggressive and dangerous elephant, most often a bull. The animal may be sick orinjured and may also be in musth. They seem to have a deep hatred of people.[In Sri Lanka, the term is hora allia or hora or sora (from Sanskrit chora) orronkedoors (Dutch).]

Rutting发情:(Poole 1987:283,284,311,313)雄性有蹄类动物高度性兴奋的状态；与象的狂暴态相似，但发情rutting基本同步，而种群中雄象的狂暴是不同步的。Heightened sexual state in male ungulates;similar in many respects to musth in elephants, except that rutting isgenerally synchronous and musth is asynchronous among males in a population.

Sahn(Hindustani)象群（印度斯坦语）: (Sillar & Meyler 1968:113) Groupof elephants.

Salt-lick舔盐:[又见: bai] (Weir 1969; Ruggiero & Fay 1994; Holdo,et al. 2002)在矿质丰富的地点象会以食土补充盐分，如粘土为基质的蚁丘、水洼。Localities- e.g. termite-mounds, waterholes with clay substrates - where elephants eatsoil rich in minerals.

Saun(language ?)独象:[see also: goondah] (Carrington 1958:160) Wild, single, male elephant.

Savanna热带稀树草原:(Hanks1979:168; Estes 1991:564)热带、亚热带树木稀疏的草原，旱雨季分明。Subtropicalor tropical grassland with widely spaced trees, characterized by extended wetand dry seasons.

Schreger pattern/lines施雷格线:(Espinoza & Mann 1992:30; Spinage 1994:220)象牙横截面上特有的施雷格线构成的交叉纹理。Systemof crossing lines, which is unique to cross-sections of probosidean ivory.

Scrimshaw/scrimshanding牙雕: (Parker & Amin 1983:147; Espinoza& Mann 1992:30)北美地区发展的一种艺术形式，主要在象牙表面进行雕刻[还包括贝雕、海象牙雕等]。An art form, developedmainly in North America, in which designs are engraved on the surface of ivory.[Also performed on walrus-ivory and sperm-whale-teeth.]

Scrivelloes小象牙:(Lyell 1924:175; Sanderson 1962: 217; Daniel 1998:39)象牙贸易中代表小象牙[4.5-9kg]。仅从嘴唇伸出几英尺的短象牙。有时和短牙tushes同义[seeKrishnan 1972:300]。Name used in the ivory-trade forsmall tusks, under 10-20 lbs. [4.5-9 kg]; short tusks, projecting a few inchesfrom the lips. May sometimes be synonymous with tushes [see Krishnan 1972:300].

Senescence衰老:(Hanks 1979:18; Moss 2001:151,153,155)因年老身体状况退化Deterioratingphysical condition, owing to old age.

Sexual-dimorphism性二型:(Laws 1969:196; Poole 1994)外观或行为存在性别差异Physical orbehavioral differences between the sexes.

Sexually-active/inactive性活跃/性休止:(Moss & Poole 1983:318,322; Poole et al. 1984:256,258,259; Poole1987:286,290; Poole 1989a:141)即便不在发狂期，性活跃的成年雄象也可顺利完成交配。性休止期的雄性通常会独自或加入全雄群行动。成年雄性的性状态包括：非狂暴休止、非狂暴活跃、狂暴间期、近狂暴、全狂暴；可能由血浆中睾酮的升高程度引发不同状态。定期进入狂暴态的雄性成为“社交象”（"sociallymature"），而无法进入狂暴态的年轻雄性被称为“非社交象”（"sociallyimmature"）。[雌性仅在短暂的发情期接受交配]。Adult males who are sexually-active associate with femalesand can mate successfully even though not in musth; adult males who aresexually-inactive usually stay with all-male groups or alone. The various categoriesof adult male sexual condition are: non-musth inactive, non-musth active,inter-musth, near- [peri-] musth, full-musth; they probably representincreasing levels of plasma testosterone. Older adult males who periodicallycome into musth are referred to as "socially mature"; younger maleswho do not come into musth are referred to as "socially immature".[Females are receptive to sex only during the short period of estrus.]

Shikar(Hindustani/Bengali/Assamese)狩猎（印度斯坦语/孟加拉语/阿萨姆语）: (Lahiri-Choudhury1999:458,459)打猎或射击活动。Shikari意为猎人。Thesport of hunting or shooting game. Shikari [also: shikarie, shikaree, shekarry;moksoh (Burmese)] is the "sportsman-hunter".

Sibling胞象:(Ford & Beach 1951:287)拥有相同母象的后代，如胞兄弟姐妹。Offspringof the same mother, i.e. brothers and sisters.

Sidor(Thai)无牙象（泰语）: [see also: mukna, tusklessness] Termfor tuskless males in Thailand.

Sikara(Sanskrit): (Edgerton 1931:36)梵语中指从狂暴雄象鼻中喷出的液体。Fluid that amusth bull sprays from its trunk.

Silinguva(Sanskrit ?)象栏:[see also: crush] (Deraniyagala 1955:142; Cannon & Davis 1995:109)治疗圈养象时限制大象的设施。Structure restricting a captive elephant whileit receives treatment.

Singoung(Burmese)象夫头:(Gale 1974:159)象夫的头领，oozies和pejeiks都听命于Singoung。Head elephant-man.Oozies and pejeiks come under him.

Sin-oke(Burmese)象长老:(Gale 1974:159)尊贵、经验丰富的老象夫，地位高于singoung、oozies、pejeiks等。Verysenior and experienced elephant-man. Singoungs, oozies, and pejeiks come underhim.

Sinpyudaw(Burmese)白象（缅甸语）: [also: Sin-byu-daw] (Gale 1974:159;Daniel 1998:35)一种珍稀的白象，有20个指（和趾），珍珠似的眼睛、红嘴、浅淡且光滑的皮肤。Arare "white elephant", with 20 toes, pearly eyes, red mouth, lightcolored and smooth skin.

Social organization社群:(Moss & Poole 1983; Moss 1988; Poole & Moss 1989:112)见下文各等级结构的定义Hierarchicalorganization, below. See definitions under each term, individually.

Female & young groupings雌象&小象群[又见cow-calfgroup雌幼群]

Family unit家族单位[又见family家庭、matriarchal family母系氏族、matriarchal unit母系单位]

Bond group族群[又见kinship group亲属群]

Clan氏族

Aggregation集群[with no adult males present无成年雄性]

Sub-population亚种群[with no adult males present无成年雄性]

Mixed groupings混合群[withadult males and cow-calf groups both present同时存在成年雄象和雌幼群]

Aggregation集群

Sub-population亚种群

Population种群

All-male groupings Bull group全雄群: [又见bachelor herd单身群, bull herd雄象群]

Sowari(language ?)坐骑象:[see also: meergah] (Sanderson 1907:88; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:459)体重轻的大象，以骑坐为目进行训练。Light-weight elephant, trained for riding.

Spoor痕迹:[又见: twizzle, bolus粪丸] (Sikes1971:320-321)大象留下的痕迹；主要有粪便、足迹，也包括折断的树枝、树干蹭痕、挖土痕迹等。Signleft by passing elephants; composed mainly of twizzles, dung, tracks.....alsobroken trees, mud rubbed on tree-trunks, diggings in dirt [to dust], etc.

Sternal recumbency胸式卧:[又见: lateral recumbency侧躺](McKenzie 1993:683)以胸部或胸骨支撑趴卧Lying on the brisket orsternum.

Stereotypical behavior刻板行为:[= stereotypy] (Immelmann & Beer 1989:291)不断做重复动作的行为，常见于圈养象。可能与焦虑、沮丧、挫败的期望有关。此行为也见于低密度种群地区的野生个体中Patternof repeated movements, most often seen in captive elephants. Probably related toanxiety, frustration or thwarted intentions. Some such behavior-patterns may befound - in a very low-intensity or abbreviated form - in wild individuals.

Sub-population亚种群:[又见: social organization社群组成](Moss & Poole 1983:315,317,322)旱季占据不同家域、但雨季可自由混合交流的家庭群[安博塞利观察到一个亚种群包括4个氏族、27个家族(Moss & Poole 1983:317)]Families that occupy distinctdry-season home-ranges but may mix freely in the wet season [@ Amboseli onesub-population contained 27 family units in 4 clans (Moss & Poole1983:317)].

Suckling/suckle哺乳:[又见: lactating female哺乳雌性,weaning断奶, comfort suckling安抚性哺乳,nursing哺乳] (Moss & Colbeck 1992:90,144-145;Shoshani 1992:53,54)允许小象获得乳汁；以乳汁喂养。Permitting a calfto nurse and obtain milk; to nourish from the breast.

Swe-gar(Burmese):(Gale 1974:159)象牙向外侧长的大象。Elephant with his tusksgrowing outward.

Swe-pyat(Burmese):[also: swe-byat; see also: manswe] (Gale 1974:159)因某些原因，长牙被切断或断落的断牙象Elephantwith his tusks cut or broken off, owing to accident or other causes.

Tactile触觉的:(Ford & Beach 1951:288)象拥有多种触觉相关的社交行为，大多与获取其他象生理状态的嗅觉信息相关。Referringto the sense of touch. Elephants show many tactile social behaviors, most ofwhich are probably related to the collection of olfactory cues about thephysiological status of other elephants.

Tai(Burmese)独牙象（缅甸语）: [see also: mukhna, han, hine](Williams 1950:44; Gale 1974:160) Bull with only one tusk, either left orright.

Tal-betal(language ?):(Shand 1996:60)长牙一支向上、一支向下弯的大象Referring to tusks, oneof which points upward, the other downward.

Tan(Burmese):(Gale 1974:160)生来只有一支短象牙的大象。Elephant born with onlyone short tusk, either left or right.

Taphonomy化石学:(Haynes 1991; Nelson 1997:24)研究化石的形成，骨骼如何被地理生物过程影响。Thestudy of how fossils are formed. How bones are affected by geological andbiological processes.

Taxonomy分类:(Shoshani & Eisenberg 1982; Laursen & Bekoff 1978:1,6; Shoshani1992:43,45)将生物分类的科学。Branch of science dealing with thclassification of organisms.

Elephasmaximus亚洲象:亚洲象分为3-4个亚种Asian elephant; usually divided into 3-4 subspecies:

E.m.maximus,锡兰象

E.m.sumatranus,苏门答腊象

E.m.indicus,印度象

E.m.borneensis婆罗洲象

[分类名出处见Shoshani1992:43,44,58]

Loxodontaafricana非洲象；

对于非洲象提出应分两种:

L. africana非洲草原象和L.cyclotis非洲森林象

[分类名出处见Shoshani1992:43,44]

Paenungulata近有蹄类:(Estes 1991:249)蹄兔、象、海牛等hyraxes, elephants, anddugongs/manatees

Proboscidea长鼻类:=象及其（已灭绝的）近亲elephants and their [extinct] allies

Tethytheria特提斯兽类:= Sirenia海牛目(dugongs儒艮/ manatees海牛) & Proboscidea长鼻目

Temporal dent, upper & lower颞窝: (Albl 1971:135,138,140)头两侧颞区的两处凹陷，在颧弓（zygomatic-arch）上方，下颞窝包含颞腺。其凹陷度反映了象的年龄，某种程度上反映了身体状况。Twodepressions in the temporal region of each side of the head, above thezygomatic-arch. Their depth is a good indication of age and to a lesser extent- of physical-condition. The lower temporal dent contains the temporal gland.

Temporal gland颞腺:[同: T.G., musth gland狂暴腺](Jainudeen, et al. 1972:256; Laursen & Bekoff 1978:2; Rasmussen et al.1984:352; Poole 1987:287,288[drawing])颞腺位于眼和耳中间，分泌颞液，类似唾液腺。雄象颞腺可达3公斤，雌性较少超过1公斤。在狂暴期，颞腺显著肿胀。[In SouthIndia, the term is kuppool (McGaughey 1963:105).]Glandlocated midway between the eye and ear, which resembles salivary tissue andsecretes temporal gland secretion. Weight: up to 3 kg in males, rarely over 1kg in females. It swells significantly in males during musth. [In South India,the term is kuppool (McGaughey 1963:105).]

Temporal gland secretion颞腺分泌液: [同: temporin, T.G.S.颞液, rutwater发情液] (Deraniyagala 1955:132; Rasmussen et al.1984:353,354,358-360,361; Poole 1987:286,287,288[drawing],307,311)对于亚洲象，只有一种颞液，只有发狂雄象分泌。对于非洲象，有两种颞液：一种短期、水状，表示社交兴奋或紧张状态，可见于雌雄幼象；另一种持久、粘稠状，表示发狂状态，只见于雄象。InElephas, there is one type of T.G.S.: in males only, which signifies musth. InLoxodonta, there are two types of T.G.S.: watery and short-term, inmales/females/young, which signifies social excitement or stress; more viscousand durable, in males only, which signifies musth.

Temporin颞液:[同: temporal gland secretion, T.G.S.颞液](Poole & Moss 1981; Poole 1987:286,307)见颞腺分泌液（temporalgland secretion）定义。可能将Temporin用于定义非狂暴颞液更合适[Sukumar(1994:38,39-40,95-96)]。See definition under temporalgland secretion. Perhaps it is better to reserve the term temporin for thenon-musth secretion only, as is done by Sukumar (1994:38,39-40,95-96).

Terai(Hindustani):[also: tarai] (Sukumar 1994:169; Wemmer 2000:60)喜马拉雅山脚、印度北部和尼泊尔南部湿润的区域，为以婆罗树为主的森林。Moistland; the region in the foothills of the Himalaya of northern India andsouthern Nepal, characterized by sal (Shorea robusta) forests.

Testiconda隐睾:(Glover 1973:45)睾丸位于腹部，如蹄兔和象。Having the testespermanently and normally in the abdomen, as in the elephant and the hyrax.

Testing嗅探:(Schulte & Rasmussen 1999b:1269)通常为雄象以鼻指获取雌性生殖器、尿液、粪便的化学信息，之后将鼻指放入口中[又见:性嗅flehmen,犁鼻器Jacobson's organ, vomeronasal organ]。可能在确定雌性的性状态（是否发情）。少见于雌性或幼象中。Olfactoryresponse shown mainly by bulls to sample, with the trunk-tip, a female'sgenitals, urine, or dung. After testing, the trunk-tip is often then placed inthe mouth [see also: flehmen, Jacobson's organ, vomeronasal organ]. Presumablyperformed in order to determine the sexual status (i.e. estrous or non-estrous)of the female. Less frequently, testing can be done by females or calves.

Testosterone睾酮:(Hall-Martin & van der Walt 1984; Poole et al. 1984; Rasmussen et al.1984:356-358,360,361; Poole 1987:285,308,311)雄性性激素，由睾丸产生；狂暴象的血浆和尿液中浓度显著提高。Malesex hormone, produced primarily by the testes; found to be significantly higherin the plasma and urine of males in musth.

Thiringeye(Sanskrit ?): (Cannon & Davis 1995:109) Pole used with a tourniquet forcontrolling elephants.

Toenails趾（指）甲:(Spinage 1994:52-53; Shoshani 2000: 39)在部分趾（指）端部覆有的坚硬、角质化结构。通常象前足4-5个，后足3,4或5个。Hard,keratinized material at end of some digits along the front edge of feet.Generally 4-5 on forefeet and 3, 4, or 5 on hindfeet.

Tofa(Wata [Kenya]):(Parker & Amin 1983:45)大雄象，每支长牙70-100磅。Large male with tusks 70-100 lbs. each.

Tondo(Shangaan [Mozambique])无牙象: [see also: mukna] (Capstick1977:99-100; Capstick 1988:90)莫桑比克对无牙象的称谓。Term fortuskless male elephants in Mozambique.

Trail象道:(Gavron 1993:79)大象走出来的路径，通常常年使用。Foot-path used byelephants [and other animals]; often of great age and tradition.

Translocation转移:(McKenzie 1993:683)捕捉、运输、释放动物到新环境的过程。Capture,transportation, and release of animals into a new area.

Tree-breaking折树:[also: tree-shaking] (Hendrich 1971:148-156)将树折断以获得树叶与果实，同时也是雄象在社群中的展示手段。Treesare knocked down, often so that leaves or fruit can be reached and eaten. Alsodone, apparently for social reasons, especially by certain bulls.

Tripy ivory废象牙:(Spinage 1994:220)表面斑驳、无光泽的象牙，可能源于钙流失。Tusks with amottled or speckled appearance, perhaps the result of calcium deficiency.

Trunk象鼻:[又见: proboscis象鼻] (Shoshani1992:44[drawing],46-47,54; Gavron 1993:46-47)象上唇和鼻延长形成肌肉发达、肢体般灵活的长鼻，可实现取食、饮水、触摸、嗅闻、发声、表达肢体信息、攻击、抛洒泥沙、水等行为。Extended,flexible appendage produced from a union of upper-lip and nose; highly dextrousand of many uses: e.g. eating, drinking, touching, vocalizing, signallingintentions, smelling, throwing water/mud/dust, as a weapon, and others.

Tush/tushes短牙:(Sanderson 1907: 67-68; Deraniyagala 1955:40; Shoshani & Eisenberg 1982:2)无髓的短象牙，从上颚向下延伸，基本不伸出嘴唇；少见较长的个体，通常较早被折断，并无法修复。大概50%雌性亚洲象有短象牙，其他无。据称短牙比长牙软。Small tusks with no pulp inside thatbarely protrude past the lip. They are short, downward-pointing prongs in theupper jaw; seldom retained long, being generally broken off early in life. Ifbroken they are not renewed. About 50% of Asian females have tushes, the othersnothing. It has been claimed that tushes have softer ivory than tusks.

Tusk长牙:[又见:象牙ivory] (Deraniyagala1955:40; Buss 1990:69-72; Shoshani 1992:46[drawing],47-48,59)永久性的第二上门齿，牙本质为主。是象牙的唯一原料。对于非洲象，两性均有象牙。终生生长，生长速度大约17厘米每年，60岁雄象平均61公斤，小象平均9.2公斤；最重记录106公斤，最长记录355厘米。只有部分雄性亚洲象有长牙。Permanentsecond upper incisors, composed mostly of dentine. The only source of realivory. In Loxodonta, both sexes normally have tusks. They grow throughout lifeat a rate of about 17 cm/year, averaging 61 kg at 60 yrs in bulls and 9.2 kg incows; record-weight = 106 kg, record-length = 355 cm. In Elephas, only somemales have tusks.

Tusker长牙象: [see also: mukhna] (Cannon & Davis 1995:173)有长牙的象An elephant with tusks. In Asia, nearly always a male.

Tusk, master大师牙:[see also: tusk, working] (Spinage 1994:75)非用于挖掘、干活的长牙，通常牙长、磨损少。Thetusk that is not used for digging, etc.; usually longer and less worn.

Tusk, working工作牙:[also: servant tusk; see also: tusk, master] (Eltringham 1982:6; Spinage1994:75)用于挖掘、干活的长牙，磨损度高。The tusk that is used fordigging, etc.; is usually, therefore, more worn down. [In Tanzania the term islukombilo (Rushby 1953:139); in Arabic, it is hadam (Baker 1890:29)].

Tuskless/Tusklessness无牙:(Owen-Smith 1966; Abe 1996; Whitehouse 2002)天生无长牙的象，由基因决定。在亚洲，大部分雌性和一些雄性（存在地域差异）无牙。在非洲，部分区域（如伊丽莎白女王国家公园、乌干达、南非阿多大象国家公园）存在相对大量的无牙雌性；无牙雄性罕见。Bornwithout the ability to produce tusks; apparently a genetically inherited trait.In Asia, most females and some males (varying with location) are tuskless. InAfrica, certain areas (e.g. Queen Elizabeth NP, Uganda, and Addo Elephant NP,South Africa) have a largely tuskless female population. Tuskless males areuncommon in Africa.

Twizzles食痕:[又见:痕迹spoor] (Eisenberg &Lockhart 1972:22; Sikes, 2000:223)掉落在路径上的被咀嚼过的树枝、茎杆。通过食物新鲜程度可推算象走过的时间。Sticksthat are chewed and dropped - often in a road or track - by passing elephants.One can tell from how fresh and green they are how recently the elephants havepassed.

Urine-dribbling滴尿:(Poole 1987:287,289[photo],295; Kahl & Armstrong 2002:163-164)狂暴态雄象的尿液从阴茎鞘滴漏的现象；处在全狂暴期的雄象每天可能丢失300公升液体。Leakageof urine from the sheathed penis, shown by males in musth; during full-musthbulls may lose more than 300 l. of fluid per day in this manner (Poole1989:148).

Urogenital sinus尿生殖窦:[= U.G.S.] (Rasmussen et al 1982:160)雌象类似泄殖腔结构，为尿道、生殖道的共同开口。Cloaca-likecommon opening to the urinary and genital tracts in a female elephant.

Usho(Wata [Kenya])长牙象/百磅牙: (Parker & Amin 1983:45)每支象牙均超过100磅的雄象。Male with tusks ofmore than 100 lbs. each.

Vasa-lobha(Sanskrit):(Edgerton 1931:122-123)雌象象诱并捕捉野生象的方法。Method ofcatching wild elephants, using the enticement by females.

Veld(Afrikaans):[also: bushveld, veldt] (Pratt, et al. 1966:382; Greaves 1996:131)南部非洲，指空旷的草地、灌草地。In southern Africa, open country orgrassland; bush.

Vidu(Sanskrit):(Edgerton 1931:71,123)亚洲象两个颅球之间的颅沟。Furrow in themiddle of the top of an elephant's head, between the domes or kumbhas.

Villus(Tamil):(Eisenberg & Lockhart 1972:4; Sukumar 1992:164)在南印度和斯里兰卡，季节性洪涝的沼泽地和小池塘。Insouthern India and Sri Lanka, seasonally inundated marshy areas and smallponds.

Vlei(Afrikaans):[see also: dambo] (Greaves 1996:131)同dambo。In southern Africa, a flat, grassy drainage channel thatfloods in the rainy season and supports no trees; marshy ground.

Vomeronasal organ犁鼻器:[同: V.N.O., Jacobson's organ;又见：testing嗅探, flehmen性嗅] (Rasmussen et al.1982:160; Rasmussen et al. 1984:360; Poole & Moss 1989:114)同：犁鼻器（Jacobson's organ Area）locatedin the roof of the mouth, that is sensitive to olfactory cues, especially thoseassociated with urine.

Vyala(Sanskrit): (Edgerton 1931:124)梵语中的离群象。Term for arogue elephant.

Wallowing打滚:(Guy 1976:289,291; Estes 1991:262; Shoshani 1992:55[photo],57)修饰、自理相关行为的共同术语，包括打滚、泥浴、沙浴、沐浴、摩擦、刮蹭等Collective term forgrooming and bodily-maintenance that includes: water-spraying/bathing/mudding/dusting/rollingin dust or mud.

Weaning断奶:[又见: nursing哺乳] (Laws 1969:207;Moss & Colbeck 1992:86-87,99,114,188; Shoshani 1992:53,54)幼象断奶通常始于1-2岁，4-5岁完全停止；偶尔到8岁左右。Cessation of nursing; usually starting at 1-2 years andusually completed by 4-5 years; occasionally continues until 8±years.

Wun-bike-kyo(Burmese):(Gale 1974:160)周长带Girth band.

Yaarba'hd(language?):(Sanderson 1907:97)工作象的常见病，尤其是常见于新捕捉的大象中，可能由于压力造成的。Commonailment among working Asian elephants. Especially among those freshly capturedand, therefore, perhaps related to stress.

Yata(Sanskrit):(Edgerton 1931:122)象夫以脚引导大象。Guidance of an elephant,by the mahout, with the feet.

Yaudha(Sanskrit):(Edgerton 1931:66)字面翻译为战士，指全狂暴的雄象。Male in full-musth.Literally a "fighter".

Zygolophodont轭齿象:(Savage & Long 1986:250)旧大陆短颌类型乳齿象的典型属，颊齿成锐利的脊形，齿尖几乎辨认不出。Proboscideanteeth with high-pitched transverse lophs or ridges.

Zygomatic-arch颧弓:(Albl 1971:135; Shoshani 1996:12)颊骨Cheek-bone.颧弓在眼睛下放水平沿头部两侧中部突起，将下颞窝和颊凹分开，颞腺就位于其正上方。颧弓由部分的上颌骨、颧骨[=颧骨malar]和鳞状骨组成。Bony ridge runningapproximately horizontally across the side-of-the-head behind the eye.Separates the lower temporal dent and the buccal depression. The temporal glandlies just above the zygomatic-arch. The zygomatic-arch is composed of parts ofthree bones: the maxilla, jugal [= malar], & squamosal.