英语语法进阶英语点滴

旋元佑进阶语法(十二)(减化从句 + 关系从句减化)

2018-01-25  本文已影响14人  Thinkando

第二十二章 减化从句
第二十三章 关系从句减化

第二十二章 减化从句

传统语法动用了各式各样的名称来说明一种概念,结果都未能说明清楚。这些名称包括
动状词(含现在分词、过去分词、动名词、动词不定词、原形动词)、非限定动词、非限定 从句、同位语、分词构句、独立词组等等。其实,所有这些名称都可以用同一个观念来理解: 减化从句(reduced clauses)

1. 何谓减化从句

减化从句的概念,其实就是一个「省略」的概念。句子从最基本的单句进入比较复杂的复合句时,前后两个从句之间往往会有重复的元素存在。所谓减化从句,就是把从属从句当中 所有重复的、空洞的元素压缩省略掉,只剩下最精简的构造.

  1. I avoid something.
    (我避免一件事。)
  2. I am caught.
    (我被逮到。)
  3. I am unprepared.
    (我没做好准备。)
    这三个句子若分成三个单句来表述如上,很明显句型缺乏变化、风格不够成熟,而且表达力差
  4. I avoid [that I am caught] [when I am unprepared.] (不够简洁)
    叙述一件事情时,保持前后句子的主语相同是个好习惯,因为这样的叙述比较有连贯 性、因此也就比较清楚。但是,主语的重复却又违反了简洁的要求。要想同时顾到清楚性以 及简洁性、消除掉所有重复的元素,最好的办法就是采用减化从句:压缩掉所有重复、空洞 的元素,将句子减化如下:
  5. I avoid being caught unprepared.
2. 从属从句减化的基础观念

一.视 be 为动词,后面的部分包括现在分词、过去分词、动词不定词、形容词、名词、介词词组等等一律视为主语补语。
二.现在分词视为形容词,字尾-ing 有「持续、进行」的暗示。
三.过去分词视为形容词,字尾-en 有「被动、完成」的暗示。
四.动词不定词具有不确定语气,和语气助动词的语气相同。
五.语气助动词都可以改写为 be + to,意思大致不变。
从属从句的减化,就要建立在上述这几点观念上。

3. 从属从句减化的共同做法
  1. 若有 be 动词,省略 be 动词。 若有语气助动词,将语气助动词减化为表示不定词的 to。
  2. 若无 be 动词也无语气助动词、只有普通动词,一律加上-ing。
3.1 省略 be 动词

[While he was taking a bath], Archimedes discovered the principle of buoyancy.
(当他在泡澡的时候,阿基米得发现了浮力原理。)
While taking a bath, Archimedes discovered the principle of buoyancy.

3.2 语气助动词改写为表示不定词的 to

I expect [that I can finish the book on the way].
(我预期可以在路上看完这本书。)
I expect [to finish the book on the way].

3.3 普通动词加-ing

The runner [who finished second] won a small prize.
The runner [finishing second] won a small prize. (who finished second → who was finishing second→ finishing second)

4 连词的处理

从属从句减化之后,因为不再有限定从句了,所以也就不再需要有连词。因此,无意义的连词如名词从句外加的 that、以及重复的连词如关系词,在减化从句中都不会留下来。至于疑问句改写而来的名词从句,减化之后原来的疑问词是有意义的连词,会保留下在减化从句中。还有就是状语从句外加的连词都有意义,在状语从句减化之后如果有需要,可以选择把连词留下来以保留字意。反之,如果意思够清楚,状语从句原来的连词在减化从句中也可以省略。

第二十三章 关系从句减化

1 减化为分词

关系从句最常见的减化情况就是减化为现在分词词组或过去分词词组。这种情况,关系从句的主语应该就是关系代词,与先行词重复。关系从句的动词如果是一般语法所谓的进行式(be + Ving),省略掉 be 动词之后就会剩下现在分词。如果动词是一般语法所谓的被动态(be + Ven),省略掉 be 动词之后剩下的就是过去分词。如果关系从句的动词是普通动词,则需要加上-ing 进行词类变化、变成现在分词。

1.1 现在分词

The man [who wants to see you] is waiting outside.
The man [wanting to see you] is waiting outside.

My Encyclopedia Britannica, [which is lying on the bookshelf and gathering dust], has seldom been used. (我那套大英百科全书,摆在书架上积灰尘,没用过几次。)
My Encyclopedia Britannica, [lying on the bookshelf and gathering dust], has seldom been used.

Anyone [that has visited Bali once] will want to return.
Anyone [having visited Bali once] will want to return.

1.2 过去分词

Grapes [that are grown in the Champagne area] make the best wines.
Grapes [grown in the Champagne area] make the best wines.

Microsoft, [which is accused of monopolizing the OS market], will have to change its business practices.
(微软公司(它被指控垄断操作系统市场)必须改变它的商业作风。)
Microsoft, [accused of monopolizing the OS market], will have to change its business practices.

A student [who has been trained at this school] is guaranteed to excel in any exam.
(经过本校训练出来的学生保证任何考试都会表现优异。)
A student [having been trained at this school] is guaranteed to excel in any exam.
A student [trained at this school] is guaranteed to excel in any exam.
过去分词(如 trained)本身就具有「完成状态」的暗示。过去分词 trained 除了「被训练」的被动语态,也具有「已经训练过」的完成状态在内。而 having been 中间 的 be 动词没有意义,整个现在分词词组 having been 只能够表达完成状态。既然后面的过去 分词已经能够表达完成状态,那么 having been 就是可有可无了。

2 减化为复合形容词

形容词只有两种主要的位置:名词词组中以及补语位置。关系从句的位置通常是放在先行词的后面来修饰它。有一种减化的方式是把关系从句减化为一个复合形容词,然后放进名 词词组中的形容词位置。这种复合形容词,通常是以现在分词或过去分词的形态出现,以下 分别介绍。

2.1 复合现在分词

“Big John” is a machine.
The machine drills tunnels.
“Big John” is a machine that drills tunnels.
“Big John” is a tunnel-drilling machine.

That magazine is for women. (那本杂志是妇女杂志。)
That magazine looks beautiful. (那本杂志看起来很漂亮。)
That magazine which looks beautiful is for women.
That beautiful-looking magazine is for women.

I’m enjoying the sunset.
The sunset is vanishing fast.
I’m enjoying the sunset, which is vanishing fast.
I’m enjoying the fast-vanishing sunset.

2.2 复合过去分词

关系从句减化为复合形容词,如果原来是被动语态,往往会成为复合过去分词的形态

I love these high peaks.
These high peaks are covered with snow.
I love these high peaks, [which are covered with snow].
I love these high, snow-covered peaks.

These apples are beginning to rot.
These apples were bitten by frost.
These apples, [which were bitten by frost], are beginning to rot.
These frost-bitten apples are beginning to rot.

2.3 减化为形容词

如果关系从句是 S + V + C 的句型,主语补语是形容词,那么减化过程中省略掉主语和 be 动词之后,剩下的就是单纯的形容词补语

A chimpanzee is an animal [that is capable of reason].(黑猩猩是一种具有理性能力的动物。)
A chimpanzee is an animal [capable of reason].

The boy, [who is usually tall and heavy for his age], wants to be a sumo wrestler.
The boy, [usually tall and heavy for his age], wants to be a sumo wrestler.
这个减化关系从句前后打一对逗点隔开,因为它是不具指示功能的补充说明。

2.4 减化为名词

如果关系从句是 S + V + C 的句型,而主语补语是个名词词组,那么在减化过程中省略掉主语与 be 动词之后,剩下的部分就是那个名词词组。这个名词词组是原来的主语补语, 也就是传统语法所谓的同位语

The Great Wall of China, [which is the largest man-made structure on earth], no longer serves a military function.
The Great Wall of China, [the largest man-made structure on earth], no longer serves a military function.

This movie features Tom Hanks, [who is my favorite movie star].
This movie features Tom Hanks, [my favorite movie star].

2.5 减化为不定词

This is not the right thing [which you should do].
关系从句中的关系代词 which 不再扮演主语的角色,而是动词 should do 的宾语。因 为关系代词是宾语,可以先行省略,剩下 you should do,再来进行减化:主语 you 省掉的 话句意仍然清楚,动词部分有语气助动词 should,减化的结果就是变成表示不定词的 to
This is not the right thing [to do].

If you want a loan, our manager is the person [whom you should see].
If you want a loan, our manager is the person [to see].
比较简单的看法是把 to see 直接视为动词词组 should see 的词类变化看待:将限定动词 should see 变成动词不定词 to see,可以当形容词使用、修饰 the person

If you like Cantonese food, I know just the place [where you can go].
If you like Cantonese food, I know just the place [to go].

This is no time [when you should be fooling around].
This is no time [to be fooling around].

I’ll show you the way [how you can start this machine].
I’ll show you the way [to start this machine].

I’m glad because I have something [that I can look forward to].
I’m glad because I have something [to look forward to].

2.6 动词不定词的语态

关系从句减化为动词不定词,要注意的是主动或被动语态的判断

  1. There’s still one more person to notify.
  2. There’s still one more person to be notified.
  3. There’s still one more person [whom we must notify].
  4. There’s still one more person [who must be notified].
2.7 主动与被动孰优孰劣

如前所述,动词不定词有时候采主动与被动皆可。但是,该用主动还是该用被动,其间 有优劣之分,这是英语写作时应该要会判断的事。传统语法因为只看到词组的层次,对于这 一点一直没有能够讲清楚。必须将动词不定词还原到从句的层次,才能够知其所以然。

When John stepped into his office, the boss was seen waiting there by him.
(前后两个从句的主语不同,造成叙事不连贯,修辞效果较差)
When John stepped into his office, he saw the boss waiting there.
Stepping into his office, John saw the boss waiting there. (进一步简化)

When John stepped out of his office, a car hit him.
When John stepped out of his office, he was hit by a car.(继续简化)
Stepping out of his office, John was hit by a car.

  1. I must stay at the office.
  2. I have some people.
  3. I must notify them.
  4. I must stay at the office [because I have some people] whom I must notify.
  5. I must stay at the office because I have some people to notify.
  1. The news can’t be released yet.
  2. There are some people.
  3. These people must be notified first.
  4. The news can’t be released yet [because there are some people] who must be notified first.
  5. The news can’t be released yet [because there are some people] to be notified first.
    (这则新闻还不能发布,因为还有些人必须先行知会。)

I’m looking for a motorcycle [that my wife can ride].
关系从句中的关系代词 that(相当于 which)是宾语,因为没有逗点和先行词隔开所 以可以先行省略,剩下 my wife can ride 再来进行减化:主语 my wife 和主要从句之间并无重 复,而且 my wife 并不是像 people, somebody 之类含糊笼统的字,所以不能省略。碰到这种 情况,助动词 can 仍然减化为表示不定词的 to,而配合动词不定词,原来的主语应该放在介 系词 for 后面的宾语位置来交代
I’m looking for a motorcycle [for my wife to ride].

3 连词的处理

Do you know the girl [who is sitting next to John]?
Do you know the girl [sitting next to John]?

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