《超越感觉》第二章：什么是批判性思考(21-22页）翻译
批判性思考者的特性
有一些关于批判性思考的误解。一个是，有理由的信仰使人成为批判性思考者。事实上，不管多脆弱，每个人都有自己的理由。是否是批判性思考要看理由是否正确和充分。
另外一个误解是，批判性思考者的想法和行为永远不模仿别人。如果这样的话，每一个古怪的人都是批判性思考者。批判性思考意味着做出合理的决定，而不管这些决定是普通的还是特殊的。
批判性思考等同于某人的脑袋里有很多正确的答案，这也是一个误解。有正确的答案当然没有问题。但是当答案不是这么轻易得到时，批判性思考包含了寻找答案的过程。
还有另外一个误解，就是人们学不会批判性思考，你能或者不能（无法改变）。其实不然，批判性思考是可以养成的习惯。通过开发批判性思考的特性，最粗心、草率的思考者也能成为批判性思考者。这并不是说所有的人都有相同思维潜能，但是每个人都能获得显著的进步。
我们已经注意到批判性思考的一个特性——提合适问题的技巧。另外一个是控制自己的思想活动。约翰.杜威（ John Dewey）曾经观察到，我们绝大多数不会承认我们花了那么多的时间做这些事情："琐碎的心理图片，随机的回忆，开心但是没有依据的希望，心猿意马，不成熟的印象"。好的思考者也不例外。当然，他们经过学习，比糟糕的思考者更好，只要他们愿意，知道如何停止偶然的，半意识的印象漂移，知道如何将自己的想法固定在具体的事情上，仔细验证，并形成判断。换句话说，他们学过如何管理他们的想法，如何主动和被动的使用心智。
对照那些非批判性思考者，这里还有一些批判性思考者的特性:
批判性思考者……
对自己诚实，明确自己不知道什么，承认自己的局限性，对自己的错误保持警惕。
将问题和有争议的事情当做令人激动的挑战。
努力理解事物，保持好奇心，对复杂事物保持耐心，准备投入时间去消除困惑。
基于证据做判断而不是个人偏好，当证据不足时推迟判断。当新的证据揭示错误时，他们修正判断。
即使当他们倾向于不同意其他人，也对其他人的想法感兴趣，会认真的阅读和倾听。
认识到极端观点（不管是保守还是自由派）很少是正确的，所以他们避免这些想法，践行合理想法，寻求平衡点观点。
习惯于克制，控制他们的感觉，而不是被感觉控制，在行动前思考。
非批判性思考者
假装他们知道的比实际的多，忽视他们的局限性，假设他们的观点永不犯错。
认为问题和有争议的事情是麻烦和对自己的威胁。
对复杂的事情没有耐心，宁愿维持混淆也不愿意努力去理解。
基于第一印象做判断，基于直觉采取行动。他们不关心证据的数量和质量，固执的坚守自己的观点。
全神贯注于自身和自己的观点，对别人的想法毫不在意。在争论最初迹象是，他们倾向于这样想，“我怎样能驳倒他呢？”
为了支持他们已经建立的观点，忽视平衡的需要，提供有偏见的想法。
倾向于跟着感觉走，行为冲动。
正如期望的品质所表明，批判性思考依赖于思维纪律。高效的思考者控制他们的精神生活，引导者他们的想法，而不是被想法引导，在没有测试并确认以前，拒绝认可任何想法——甚至包括他们自己的。约翰·杜威（John Dewey）把这种思维纪律等同于自由。也就是，他认为不具备这种能力的人不是自由的人，而是随机想法和环境的奴隶。
如果一个人的行为不是有深思熟虑的结论所引导，那么他们就会被不经思考的冲动，突发的欲望，任意的想法，或者当时的环境所引导。养成不受限制的，草率的外在活动习惯就是培养奴性，因为它让人们处于被欲望，感觉和环境的操纵之下。
原文：
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
A number of misconceptions exist about critical thinking. One is that being able to support beliefs with reasons makes one a critical thinker. Virtually everyone has reasons, however weak they may be. The test of critical thinking is whether the reasons are good and sufficient.
Another misconception is that critical thinkers never imitate others in thought or action. If that were the case, then every eccentric would be a critical thinker. Critical thinking means making sound decisions, regardless of how common or uncommon those decisions are.
It is also a misconception that critical thinking is synonymous with having a lot of right answers in one’s head. There’s nothing wrong with having right answers, of course. But critical thinking involves the process of finding answers when they are not so readily available.
And yet another misconception is that critical thinking cannot be learned, that one either has it or does not. On the contrary, critical thinking is a matter of habit. The most careless, sloppy thinker can become a critical thinker by developing the characteristics of a critical thinker. This is not to say that all people have equal thinking potential but rather that everyone can achieve dramatic improvement.
We have already noted one characteristic of critical thinkers—skill in asking appropriate questions. Another is control of one’s mental activities. John Dewey once observed that more of our time than most of us care to admit is spent “trifling with mental pictures, random recollections, pleasant but unfounded hopes, flitting, half-developed impressions.” 7 Good thinkers are no exception. However, they have learned better than poor thinkers how to stop that casual, semiconscious drift of images when they wish and how to fix their minds on one specific matter, examine it carefully, and form a judgment about it. They have learned, in other words, how to take charge of their thoughts, to use their minds actively as well as passively.
Here are some additional characteristics of critical thinkers, as contrasted with those of uncritical thinkers:
Critical Thinkers . . .
Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they don’t know, recognizing their limitations, and being watchful of their own errors.
Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting challenges.
Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity, and are ready to invest time to overcome confusion.
Base judgments on evidence rather than personal preferences, deferring judgment whenever evidence is insufficient. They revise judgments when new evidence reveals error.
Are interested in other people’s ideas and so are willing to read and listen attentively,
even when they tend to disagree with the other person.
Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or liberal) are seldom correct, so they avoid them, practice fairmindedness, and seek a balanced view.
Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by them, and thinking before acting.
Uncritical Thinkers . . .
Pretend they know more than they do, ignore their limitations, and assume their views are error-free.
Regard problems and controversial issues as nuisances or threats to their ego.
Are impatient with complexity and thus would rather remain confused than make the effort to understand.
Base judgments on first impressions and gut reactions. They are unconcerned about the amount or quality of evidence and cling to their views steadfastly.
Are preoccupied with themselves and their own opinions and so are unwilling to pay attention to others’ views. At the first sign of disagreement, they tend to think, “How can I refute this?”
Ignore the need for balance and give preference to views that support their established
Views.
Tend to follow their feelings and act impulsively.
As the desirable qualities suggest, critical thinking depends on mental discipline. Effective thinkers exert control over their mental life, direct their thoughts rather than being directed by them, and withhold their endorsement of any idea—even their own—until they have tested and confirmed it. John Dewey equated this mental discipline with freedom. That is, he argued that people who do not have it are not free persons but slaves to whim or circumstance:
If a man’s actions are not guided by thoughtful conclusions, then they are guided by inconsiderate impulse, unbalanced appetite, caprice, or the circumstances of the moment. To cultivate unhindered, unreflective external activity is to foster enslavement, for it leaves the person at the mercy of appetite, sense, and circumstance.8
