象术语[A-K]A GLOSSARY OF ELEPHANT T

国内一直欠缺一套大象相关词语的术语汇总，相互讨论时也常缺乏一个标准，有时甚至没有对应的翻译。本文是大象爱好者鶽鴞对A GLOSSARY OF ELEPHANT TERMS(Kahl & Santiapillar, 2004)象术语一文的翻译，其中很多翻译可能不准确，欢迎指正。在现在看来，2004年的这篇文章存在一些问题，如用词不准确、术语不再使用等，译者尽量按原文翻译，不做修正。发出此文，仅供交流。格式问题已尽力。

引文出处：Kahl M P, Santiapillai C. Aglossary of elephant terms[J]. Gajah, 2004, 23: 1-36.

文本出处：

https://www.elephantvoices.org/multimedia-resources/elephant-terms-glossary.html

Achin(Burmese)胎盘（缅甸语）:[also: a-chin] (Gale 1974:157; Daniel 1998:140) Afterbirth; placenta.

Age-groups年龄组成：[同: cohorts年龄层次] (Lee 1987:279; Moss 2001:150-151)粗糙、不精确的龄级（age-class）分组，部分龄级有重叠：

Infant乳象or婴象：[0-1岁]完全依赖母乳。仍可以从母象腹部下方穿过。Can still passunder mother's belly.

Calf幼象or象犊：[0-4岁]依赖哺乳阶段。幼象和小象都是未成年大象的通用词。Stilldependent on milk. Also a generic term for all immatures.

Young juvenile稚象（若象）or少年象：[2-5岁]不完全依赖哺乳，逐渐脱离母乳阶段，一段时间内可在缺乏母乳的情况下存活。Stillnursing, but can survive for some periods without milk.

Older juvenile少年象：[5-10岁]完全断奶，仍靠近母象身边活动；少年雌象开始学着照顾幼小同胞；少年雄象形成游戏群（play-groups）。Weaned, but still near mother; females start to look afteryounger siblings; males form play-groups.少年为断奶到性成熟的过程。对于雌象，性成熟后不久便可参与繁殖，少年阶段更短[或是与Adolescent合并]。

Immature未达性成熟的大象：[0-10岁]性发育不成熟的阶段。Notyet sexually mature.

Adolescent青年象：[10-15岁]性心理成熟阶段。雄象开始离群，但仍不参与繁殖。Sexuallymature, but have not yet reproduced.对于雌性阶段，Adolescent青年雌象的生理和心理均趋于成熟性成熟，参与繁殖。

Sub-adult亚成象：[15-20岁]雄性繁殖状态处于性好奇阶段（interested），但成功率低。这个年龄阶段的雌性繁殖状态性活跃（sexual-active），。Femalesreproductively active; males reproductively "interested" but notusually successful. Not yet full-grown.雄性处于离群状态或不稳定雄象群中的低等级阶层。对于雌象，Sub-adult和Adolescent意义一致。

Adult成年象：[20-55岁]完全发育。（雄性终生生长）Fullymature. (NB: males continue to grow throughout life.)

Old adult老年象：[55+岁]繁殖活动逐渐停止；臼齿停止更换；接近死亡。Reproductionslowing slightly; losing molars; nearing death.

Aggregation集群:[又见: social organization社群组成](Moss & Poole 1983:316,317,318; Poole & Moss 1989:112,114; Poole1994:335)上百头象的聚集行为，有时达到200-500头；可能聚集数十个家族（familyunits）和大量雄象；大规模聚集往往出现在雨季、食物充沛的区域，常伴随繁殖活动的高峰[又见：繁殖breeding,季节性seasonal]。也见于发生严重猎杀和干扰事件的族群聚集。[see also: social organization] (Moss& Poole 1983:316,317,318; Poole & Moss 1989:112,114; Poole 1994:335)Gathering, which can be as large as 200-500; may include dozens of family unitsand a number of mature males; larger aggregations form mainly during therainy-season in areas where food is plentiful and usually associated with peakmating activity [see also: breeding, seasonal]. Also sometimes seen inpopulations that have been heavily decimated by poaching or other disturbance.

Agonistic behavior争胜行为:(Immelmann & Beer 1989:10; Estes 1991:263,559)侵犯行为[支配/攻击行为）和防御行为[从属/投降/恐惧行为]统称。Collectiveterm for aggressive [dominant/offensive] and defensive[subordinate/submissive/fearful] behavior.

Alidena(Sinhalese)无短牙雌象（僧伽罗语）: (Deraniyagala 1955:48; Jayewardene1994:20,121; Cannon & Davis 1995:38) Female with no tushes.

Aliya(Sinhalese)短牙象或无牙雄象（或大象通称）（僧伽罗语）:[see also: pussa, mukhna] (Deraniyagala 1955:48; Jayewardene 1994:20,121;Spinage 1994:34; Cannon & Davis 1995:38; Katugaha 1997:67) Tuskless male; amale - without tusks - but with tushes; a tush elephant. Also a generic termfor elephant.

Allomother义母：[又见：auntie阿姨] (Riedman 1982:405; Lee 1987; Buss 1990:15,110; Moss &Colbeck 1992:86)异母雌性的母性行为，包括安抚性哺乳（comfort suckling）。青年或亚成雌象参与照顾、协助和保护家族（family unit）的幼象，但不是其母亲（可能为胞姐）。义母（allomother）和阿姨（auntie）相似，一般而言前者对幼象的照顾更持久。Maternalbehavior by a female not the calf's mother; may include comfort suckling.Juvenile or adolescent female elephants that comfort, assist, and protectcalves in the family unit, but are not the calves' mother (but may be theirolder sibling). Allomother and auntie are similar; in general the former is amore prolonged assistance with the young.

Anal-fold/anal-flap肛瓣: (Sikes1971:frontispiece [photo])：象尾基部三角形的瓣状皮肤，当尾巴垂下时将肛门覆盖。Triangularflap of skin at base of tail, which when lowered covers the anus.

Ani(Tamil)大象（泰米尔语）: [also: anay ] (Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455)Elephant.

Anguli(Sanskrit)象指（梵语）: (Edgerton 1931:114) "Finger" at the endof trunk.

Ankus象钩: [also:angusam, ankusa, ankush, angkus, choon, crook, gajbag, goad, guide, haunkus,hawkus, hendoo, hendu, henduwa, thotty, bull-hook, hook, driving-spike](Tennent 1867:155,156; Carrington 1958:174; Chadwick 1992:18, 297-298;Jayewardene 1994:51-52,121; Cannon & Davis 1995:110,113 [photo],172; Lair1997:272; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455)一端带有锋利、指长的金属弯钩，用以驾驭、驯导大象。Shortstick with a sharp, curved, finger-length metal hook at the tip, used tocontrol and direct captive elephants. A hooked goad for driving elephants.Euphemistically, sometimes, called "guide".

Artificial-insemination人工授精: [同: A.I.] (Schmitt, et al. 1998; Olson 1999)通过人工手段将将精液注入雌性体内。近十多年，通过新鲜精液（非冷冻）结合现代技术，才在圈养象身上实现。Impregnationof a female with semen by artifical means. Only recently has this procedurebeen successful with captive elephants, using modern techniques and fresh[rather than frozen] semen.

Asana(Sanskrit)象肩隆（梵语）：象夫所坐之处(Edgerton 1931:115) Withers; place where mahoutsits.

Askari(Kiswahili)象守卫（斯瓦西里语）：指巨型、年长公象周边的年轻雄象，他们陪伴和守卫象征着知识和经验的“象主”(Buss 1990:42,43; Smith 1992:140-141) Word meaning"soldier" or "guard"; the attendant younger bull(s), oftenin the company of an old, very large bull. In Hindustani the term is chela(Krishnan 1972:315; Daniel 1998:88).

Atha(Sinhalese)长牙象（僧伽罗语）: (Deraniyagala 1955:48; Jayewardene 1994:20,121;Spinage 1994:34; Cannon & Davis 1995:38; Katugaha 1997:67) Male with tusks;a tusker.

Ath-gala(Sinhalese)围栏捕（僧伽罗语）:用围栏捕捉大量大象的方法（僧伽罗语）[seealso: kheddah, kraal] (Cannon & Davis 1995:172) Method of capturing largenumbers of elephants by the use of a stockade.

Athinne(Sinhalese)短牙象（僧伽罗语）: [also: atini] (Deraniyagala 1955:48; Cannon &Davis 1995:38; Jayewardene 1994:20,121) Female with tushes.

Auntie阿姨：[又见: allomother义母] (Williams 1950:60-61)母亲身边的雌象（通常是胞姐）帮助照顾新生象。（auntie）和（allomother）相似，一般而言后者对幼象的照顾更持久。Female--oftenan older daughter--that stays with a mother and helps out with the newbornbaby. Auntie and allomother are similar; in general the latter is a moreprolonged assistance with the young.

Babesiosis巴贝西虫病:(McKenzie 1993:678)一种由寄生于红细胞内的巴贝西虫(Babesia sp.)经硬蜱叮咬传播的人兽共患病Tick-borne disease caused by a blood parasite,Babesia sp.

Bai森林空场(probably a creolization of the French baie, meaning bay): [see also:salt-lick] (Quammen 2003:54)在中非，雨林中一片湿润的空地，在这里常见到大象和其他动物来喝水和食用矿物质。Incentral Africa, a wet clearing in the rainforest, where elephants and otheranimals come to drink and eat minerals.

"Bamboo"牙竹:(Sanderson 1962: 216)象牙基部中空的部分，也称牙髓腔。Hollow,basal

partof a tusk; also called the nerve-cavity, pulp-cavity.

Bazaar, elephant象集:[see also: mela] (Shand 1992:5,27,158-193; Hall 2000:35)大象被展示和售卖的集会。世界上最大的象集于每年11月在印度比哈尔邦的桑纳普尔镇举行，位于恒河和甘达基河交汇处A fair; in this case an elephantfair, where elephants are bought and sold. The largest in the world is anannual affair [November], held at Sonepur at the confluence of the Ganges andGandak Rivers in Bihar, India.

Bite-size单次进食量:(McKay 1973:56,95; Guy 1975:2; Ruggiero 1992:145)平均每口的进食量，估计27-200克，不同观测者和取食种类进食量不同。Average amount of food taken in with eachtrunkful; estimated between 27-200 g, depending on observer and type of foodeaten.

Bolus粪丸:(Benedict 1936:178-179,181-184; Guy 1976:290; Estes 1991:262)单个球状粪便。平均每次排便排出3-5个粪丸，每天约17次排便，约排155公斤粪便/24小时。Single ball of feces. An average of 3-5 boli are droppedat each defecation, approximately 17 times per day, for an approximate total of155 kg of feces/24 hr.

Boma博马(斯瓦西里语Kiswahili):(McKenzie 1993:678)泛指所有突出的、起防御保护目的的结构，如围栏。在东非和南非，亦指暂时收容动物的围场。Anykind of raised structure for defensive or protective purposes; a stockade. InEast and southern Africa, the term also refers to an enclosure for thetemporary containment of animals.

Bond group族群:[又见：亲属团kinship group;社群组成socialorganization] (Moss & Poole 1983:315,318,321; Poole 1994:332,334).长期保持联系的两个或以上有亲缘关系的家族；在久别重逢后，会相互发出问候的隆声音，并进行高强度的问候仪式。Two ormore related family units, who show a strong association over time; after aseparation they greet each other with greeting rumbles or an Intense GreetingCeremony.家族族长应有亲缘关系。

Boormeergah(Hindustani):融合koomeriah和meergah两类象特点的象种（印度斯坦语）(Shand 1996:63) A type of elephant that is ablend of thekoomeriahand themeergah.

Boro(Wata [Kenya]):(Parker & Amin 1983:47)雄象每支长牙超过35磅。Malewith tusks of about 35 lbs. each.

Brachyodont低冠齿型:[也称brachydont;又见：高冠齿hypsodont、臼齿molar] (Shoshani 1998:481)臼齿齿冠高度小于等于齿根高度；见于早期某些长鼻动物。Referringto molars with low-crowns; found in some early proboscideans.

Breeding herd繁殖群:[又见：cow-calf group雌幼群、socialorganization社群组成]由成年雌象和其后代组成的群体。在南非，繁殖群一词通常与家族同义。Groupof mature females and their offspring. Especially in southern Africa, the termis often used as synonymous with family unit.

Breeding, seasonal繁殖期:(Laws 1969:199-200,203,215; Hanks 1972b:13,17,18,22-23; Williamson1976:89,90,91; Craig 1984; Hall-Martin 1987:616-617,618; Poole1987:285,305,309,313)一年中大部分雌象受孕发生的时期。在旱雨季分明的地区，繁殖高峰发生在象身体状态良好的雨季以及雨季后；在旱雨季不分明的地区，繁殖可以全年发生。“雨季充沛的水资源带来了适宜的繁殖环境、高质量的食物以及象放松的心理，而雨季过后，象群家族又将要分离去寻找水源和食物，外在和内在因素共同作用造成了繁殖高峰期的出现”(Williamson 1976:91)。Time of year when the majority ofconceptions take place. In areas with a pronounced wet/dry cycle, breedingpeaks during and following the rainy season when elephants are in good condition;in areas with a less pronounced wet/dry cycle, breeding may occur throughoutthe year. "Breeding peaks are probably a product of an increase in wateravailability and the consequent dispersions....away from artificial waterholes[@ Hwange NP, Zimbabwe], resulting in favourable breeding conditions underreduced stress, and to the seasonal availability of high quality food"(Williamson 1976:91).

Browse食叶:[see also: graze] (Owen-Smith 1982:360,372,373; Shoshani 1992:54)食树或灌丛的叶、芽、细枝、嫩枝。To eat leaves, buds, twigs, shoots of treesand shrubs (i.e. woody vegetation).

Buccal depression 颊凹:(Albl 1971:135,138,140)指两侧脸颊颧弓（zygomatic-arch）下方的凹陷区域；凹陷的程度是年龄的指示，某种程度反映身体状况。Depression in the cheekregion of the sides of the head, below thezygomatic-arch;depth is a good indication of age and--to a lesser extent--ofphysical-condition.

Budi(language ? [Tanzania]):在坦桑尼亚指无牙象(Rushby 1953:131;Capstick 1992:34) In Tanzania, a tuskless elephant.

Bull公象:(Ford & Beach 1951:270)成年雄象。Adult male.

Bull area雄象区:[又见: retirement area养老区] (Moss& Poole 1983:318,323; Hall-Martin 1987:616,618; Buss 1990:43; Moss &Colbeck 1992:109)在性休止（sexual-inactive）时期，成年雄性占领的领域。Regioninhabited mainly by mature males, during periods of sexual inactivity.

Bull group雄象群: [=bull herd雄象群,bachelor herd单身群;又见：socialorganization社群组成] (McKay 1973:81-84; Moss & Poole1983:316,318,322,323,325; Hall-Martin 1987:619; Buss 1990:28,36; Estes1991:261)成年、或亚成[14-16岁]聚集的群；这种聚集是短期、偶见的一种结合[在肯尼亚，群大小2-25头，平均3.8 (Moss & Poole 1983:316)]。雄群个体间的交流通常是放松、友好的；某一个体与其他雄性或雌性的关系取决于其年龄和性状态[又见：sexually active/inactive性活跃/休止, musth狂暴]；在狂暴的高度性活跃期，雄性通常靠近雌性或独自活动(Poole & Moss 1989:116)。Gathering of mature, andsometimes a few adolescent [as young as 14-16 years] males; these males do notusually form any long-term bonds with each other, although some may [@Amboseli, Kenya, bull groups averaged 3.8, with a range of 2-25 (Moss &Poole 1983:316)]. Interactions between members of a bull group are usuallyrelaxed and amiable; whether a bull associates with other bulls or with femalesdepends on its age and sexual state [see also: sexually active/inactive,musth]; during the heightened sexual-stage of musth, males are typically foundwith females or alone (Poole & Moss 1989:116).

Bulling problem雄暴问题:(Alexander 2000:10)圈养雄象狂暴期的管理问题。The problem of musth,in the keeping of captive male elephants.

Bunolophodont丘脊齿型:(Savage & Long 1986:249; Tassy 1996:21)低冠齿的锥形或圆形的齿尖排列成丘脊，是早期大象臼齿用以研磨食物的结构。Low-crownedtooth with domed cusps which are transversely linked by a loph or ridge. Referringto the structure of the grinding-surface of elephant molars.

Burying behavior掩埋行为:(Kühme 1962:68-69; Kühme1963:117)象通过抛散土、树枝树叶等物体以掩埋某目标的行为，如象或其他躺卧的动物。elephantattempts to bury an object, such as a prostrate animal (elephant or otherspecies).

Calf幼象:[又见: age groups年龄组成] (Lee1987:279)通常不足4岁的小象。Youngelephant, generally less than 4 years old.

Calf-distress幼象悲鸣:(Lee 1987:287)当一头幼象处在困境时，它会发出深沉的隆声，或是高声的吼、喊、尖叫声，以引起其他象的注意和共鸣。Whena calf is in distress, it gives a deep, low rumble or a loud bellow, cry,scream, or roar, which evokes dramatic responses by other elephants.

Capture myopathy捕捉性肌病:(McKenzie 1993:678)一种由肌肉剧烈厌氧活动造成的疾病，通常与捕捉行为相关，造成心肌或骨骼肌损伤。Diseaseinduced by excessive anaerobic muscular activity, usually following exertionassociated with capture; characterized by lesions of skeletal and cardiacmuscle.

Carcass-decompostion, stages of尸体降解阶段: (Douglas-Hamilton &Douglas-Hamilton 1992:109-110; Poole 1996:194)

Fresh近期:腐败胀气、可见血迹及秃鹫的排泄物bloated,blood, vulture-droppings.

Recent年内:短于1年；皱缩的皮包在骨上，周边地面形成秃块，也称作腐烂的斑块lessthan one year; shrunken skin over bones, surrounded by bare patch of earth, the"rot patch".

Old白骨:白骨堆pile of white bones.

Veryold碎骨:破碎的灰骨堆pile of gray,cracked bones.

Carcass-ratio尸骸率: (Barnes & Douglas-Hamilton 1982:414;Douglas-Hamilton & Michelmore 1996:325)通常通过航空调查记录死亡和存活象的数量，以死亡象占总观察象数量的比率表示。Thenumbers of dead elephants, expressed as a percentage of all elephants seen,both dead and alive; usually from aerial surveys.

Caste种姓制度: (Cannon & Davis 1995:36,37,109,172)根据象的特性、脾性和在驯养的用途和贡献性将其分类。Separating elephants intocategories, according to their attributes of usefulness in domestication.

Cathemeral间歇性: [又见: diurnal/nocturnal/crepuscular昼行性/夜行性/晨昏性]昼夜均活动的动物，如象。Animals,such as elephants, that are or can be active in portions of the day and thenight.

Cementum牙骨质: (Espinoza& Mann 1992:29; Spinage 1994:219)包裹在臼齿或长牙牙本质表面的钙化组织；类似骨质结构，比牙本质软；主要起将牙根固定在颚骨上的作用。Moderatelycalcified tissue surrounding the dentine of a molar or tusk; softer thandentine and more like bone in structure. Its main function is to anchor thetooth to the jaw-bone.

Chang peuak(Thai)白象（泰语）: (Daniel1998:36)稀少且神圣的白象A rare and revered "whiteelephant".

Chang samkhan(Thai)白象（泰语）: (Komar, etal. 2000:31) A "white elephant".

Char-jarma(Hindustani

?): [also:charjama ] (Baker 1890:48; Sanderson 1907:89; Carrington 1958:175;Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455)侧向背靠背地坐在大象背上的，较象轿howdah更适于普通的旅行。轻便的骑具，可容纳4至多人侧向背靠背乘坐。Seat onan elephant's back in which riders sit back to back, facing sideways. Forordinary travel it is preferred to the howdah. Light riding harness, which canaccommodate four or more persons, sitting back-to-back facing the flanks; ithas protective rails at both ends.

Charkaatiya(Hindustani): (Shand1992:6,24)为圈养象砍切食物的人Man who cuts fodder for a captiveelephant.

Chela(Hindustani)象守卫（印度斯坦语）: (Daniel 1998:88)相对于亚洲象的称谓（askari针对非洲象）Asian term for askari.

Chena land(Sinhalese

?): (Tennent1867:64; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455)在斯里兰卡，一块被砍伐、种植庄稼、后又废弃恢复为丛林的区域。InSri Lanka, a patch of forest land that is cleared to raise a single crop, afterwhich it is abandoned and reverts to jungle again.

Chryselephantine克里斯里凡亭: (Sanderson 1962: 220; Parker & Amin1983:98-99,99[photo]; Alexander 2000:70,71)一种将象牙、黄金、宝石或某些木材等材料混合的艺术形式。在古希腊时期是地位的象征Artform in which ivory is mixed with solid gold, cedar, and other woods, gems, andother materials. Greek statuesfaced withivory platesand decorated with gold and gold leaf.

CITES华盛顿公约: (Greaves1996:141)是濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约英文首字母的缩写，由多国签署、1975年生效，旨在对象牙、皮张以及其他野生动植物制品的贸易进行管制。Acronym for "Conventionon International Trade in Endangered Species", a treaty signed in 1975 bymany countries to regulate the trade in ivory, skins, and other animal productstaken from the wild.

Clan氏族: [又见:社群组成social organization] (Moss& Poole 1983:315,317,322,323; Hall-Martin 1987:616; Moss 1988:76,126,132;Estes 1991:261; Poole 1994:334)共享旱季家域的家族[肯尼亚安博塞利曾记录4个氏族，分别有9、8、5、5个家族]。声音录放实验证明象可以识别氏族内和非氏族成员。Family units that use the samedry-season home-range [@ Amboseli, Kenya, 4 clans contained 9,8,5,5 familyunits, respectively (Moss & Poole 1983:317)]. Playback experiments showthat elephants distinguish between clan and non-clan members (McComb, et al.2000).

Color-vision色彩视觉:(Owen-Smith 1982:387; Sukumar 2003:140)在弱光环境下，象眼具有限的色彩视觉，但在亮光下为灰色的世界。Abilityto see colors, as opposed to simply variations of intensity-of-grey (i.e. black& white). Elephants may see in shades-of-grey in bright light, but havelimited color-vision in dim light.

Colostrum初乳: (McKenzie1993:678)母亲分娩后最初分泌的乳汁，包含高浓度的抗体水平First milk secreted bymother after birth; contains high levels of antibodies.

Comfortsuckling安抚性哺乳: [又见: allosuckling义亲哺乳、nursing护理] (Lee 1987:288-290)接受非亲幼象做出的吮吸行为。通常见于无产奶能力的亚成雌象或其他成年雌象（非幼象亲母）。很多情况下是幼象的祖母给予营养支持。也可能是母象为一头紧张的幼象提供安抚。Permittinga calf, not her own, to attempt to suckle. Usually observed in adolescentfemales who cannot provide milk; but adult females may also suckle calves nottheir own. In many cases these are the calf's grandmother, and the calfprobably receives nourishment. May also be provided by the mother, to a calfthat has experienced stress.

Compressionhypothesis压缩假说: (Sukumar 1992:99)人类的聚集使得象分布范围被压缩，导致局部象的丰度过高。Overabundance of elephants, owing to compression of their range by humansettlement.

Consortbehavior交配行为: [=consorting配对, consortship配偶](Moss 1983:176-177; Estes 1991:560; Moss & Colbeck 1992:177)雄象，通常为处在狂暴状态的个体，与发情雌象结合的行为。可能持续几天，在期间发生多次交配行为Association of amale, usually in musth, with a female in estrus. May persist for several days, duringwhich multiple copulations may take place.

Contagiousbehavior行为传染: [= movement, coordination of] (Kühme 1963:115;McKay 1973:4,75,77; Moss 1983:170)个体的行为造成同伴相似性行为的发生。Behaviorin which the actions of one individual result in similar actions by companions.

Coppice小灌丛: (Greaves1996:141)木本植被破坏后再生的次级植物Secondary re-growth of damagedwoody vegetation.

Coprolite粪化石: (Savage& Long 1986:249)石化的粪便Fossilized dung.

Coprophagy食粪性: (Kühme 1961:290)食用粪便Eating of feces.

Cow雌象: (Ford& Beach 1951:272)成年雌性Adult female.

Cow-calfgroup雌幼群: [又见: breeding herd繁殖群;social organization社群组成] (Moss 1983:168; Poole &Moss 1989:113,114; Buss 1990:28; Moss & Colbeck 1992:40; Poole1994:331,332)一头或多头成年雌性和其后代形成的群体。家族family unit和雌幼群cow-calf group有一些区别，由于家族成员不会总是稳定集合的，雌幼群可以表示任何形式雌象和幼象的组合，不考虑亲缘关系，可以包括两至上百个个体。Gatheringof one or more mature females and their offspring. There is some confusion inthe use of the terms "family unit" and "cow-calf group",because families may not always be stable. Here a "cow-calf group" isany gathering of cows and calves, without regard to their relatedness. It mayconsist of anything from two to hundreds of individuals.

Crupper后鞧: (Baker 1890:50; Shand 1992:25)指栓于象臀尾下起固定象轿作用的部件，通常是平滑硬质的金属材料Unitthat passes under an elephant's tail to help secure the howdah; often made ofmetal; smoothness, not softness, is important.

Crush夹笼: [同: elephant-restraint-device象束缚设备,E.R.D., E.R. chute, E.R.C.; see also: silinguva] (Williams 1950:70,87x[photo];Sanderson 1962: 191,197[drawing]; McKenzie 1993:679)束缚象的机械器具，是一种进行危险操作时的保护措施Enclosureused for the mechanical restraint of elephants; a safety measure whenperforming procedures that may be dangerous.

Culling筛杀: [see also:poaching] (Hanks 1979:11,15,39-67,155,157,164; Spinage 1990:15; Gavron1993:131-132,134-135,192-193; Hall-Martin 2000)通过狩猎管理手段合法淘汰区域种群过多的动物。在大象筛杀过程中，通常是以家族为单位进行清理。Thelegal killing of excess animals in a population; used as a game-management toolby wildlife officials. With elephants, the usual aim is for entire family unitsto be removed at once.

Dadnabas(Wata [Kenya]):大型雌性非洲象(Parker& Amin 1983:47) Large females.

Dambo(language ?): [see also: vlei ] (Pratt, et al. 1966:380; Snelson 1997)赞比亚，无树、在雨季泛滥的涝原草地In Zambia, a flat, grassy drainage channelthat floods in the rainy season and supports no trees.

Dana(Sanskrit)颞液（梵文）:[also: temporal gland secretion, T.G.S.] (Edgerton 1931:118)亚洲象狂暴期的颞腺分泌液Fluidthat flows from the temporal glands in musth.

Danas(language ?): (Shand 1996:50)一种圈养象的食物，将小麦和盐混合推入香蕉秆制成Food for captive elephants, made from wheat and salt rolled in a banana stalk.

Decoy elephant象诱:(Cannon & Davis 1995:172)驯象以吸引捕捉野生象。Tame elephantused to lure wild elephants for capture.

Dentine/dentin牙本质:[又见: ivory象牙] (Spinage1994:218; Nelson 1997:24)是一种乳白色到黄色的矿化物质，人类和动物牙齿的大部分是由它构成。Hard,mineralized connective tissue that forms the main substance of a molar or tusk.Formed of collagen, calcium, phosphate, and carbonate.

Diestrus动情间期:[同: dioestrus动情间期;又见: estrus发情期, pre-estrus动情前期, metestrus动情后期] (Arey, et al.1957:384; Jainudeen, et al. 1971:323)雌性哺乳动物动情后期和下次动情前期之间性休止的时期Periodof sexual quiescence occuring between metestrus and pre-estrus in femalemammals.

Diploe板障:颅盖骨表层密质内板和外板之间蜂巢状的骨质结构称为板障，板障的气室和气胞结构使得骨骼轻而坚韧，象颅骨内主要为这种形式的结构。Pneumatizedbone containing air cells making the bone light-weight, yet strong;honey-combed bone. In elephants, the skull especially is of this form.

Displacement activity替代行为:(Tinbergen 1952; Estes 1991:561)通常发生在矛盾处境中的行为，行为表现通常与处境不相干（如遭遇冲突时表现的安抚行为）。通常此类行为起源于仪式化的展示行为。Typeof behavior, usually found in conflict situations, in which activities areperformed that seem out-of-context (e.g. comfort-movements during a hostileencounter). Often the origin of behavior patterns shown in ritualized displays[q.v.].

Display, ritualized仪式化展示:(Tinbergen 1952; McFarland 1987:483-485; Estes 1991:561; Kahl & Armstrong2000)行为模式在进化过程中产生、修正、固定、仪式化，用以传达个体的情绪和目的。在象中已记录100种左右展示行为。Behavior-pattern that has been derived, modified, andstereotyped through evolution, and which communicates information to otheranimals about the sender's mood and/or intention. Approximately 100 suchdisplays have been described in elephants.

Diurnal/nocturnal/crepuscular日行性/夜行性/晨昏性:(McKenzie 1993:679,681) [又见: cathemeral间歇性]大部分活跃时间分别集中在日间/夜间/日出和日落Most active during the daytime/nighttime/around sunsetand sunrise, respectively.

Dominant frequency优势频率，主频[缩写D.F.]:[又见: fundamental frequency基本频率,peak frequency峰频率] (Berg 1983:65)象声音最高强度的频率。Frequencyof highest intensity in an elephant vocalization.

Dudurucha(Wata[Kenya]): (Parker & Amin 1983:44)不足8岁的青年雄性非洲象Young male of less than 8 years old.

Dwarf elephant矮化象:(Caloi, et al. 1996; Roth 1996)与侏儒象不同，是体型矮化的长鼻类，通常发现于史前时代的岛屿上，已灭绝[=insular dwarfism岛屿侏儒化]。Smallerforms of Proboscidea, usually found on islands in prehistoric times [=insulardwarfism]; now extinct. To be distinguished from pygmy elephant [q.v.].

Dwasala(language ?): [also: samkirna, misra ] (Edgerton 1931:12,16; Sanderson 1907:83,84)二等象，最普通的大象类型。等级在koomeriah和meergah之间，可能是这两种象的杂交Second-rate elephant, classed between akoomeriah and a meergah. Probably a half-breed mixture of those other two. Mostordinary elephants are of this type.

Eburnian类象牙:由象牙、象牙相关或外观近似象牙材料制成的物品Made of or pertaining to ivory.

Ek-danteya(Sinhalese)雄性独牙象:(Cannon & Davis 1995:38; Katugaha 1997:67) A single-tusked male.

Enamel牙釉质:(Spinage 1994:219; Nelson 1997:24)牙齿最外层起保护作用的坚硬光滑的组织；象牙刚长出时起保护尖部作用，很快便被磨损。Hard,glossy covering of tip-of-tusk when it first emerges; quickly worn away.

Enrichment, environmental环境丰容: [=enrichment, behavioral行为丰富化] (Abramson & Carden 1998)环境中为满足圈养象社交需求（同其他象）或游戏的对象等增置的成分。Provisionof social interaction (i.e. other elephants) and interesting things forcaptives to do, play with.

Estrus发情期:[名词= estrus发情;形容词= estrous发情的;同:oestrus/oestrous发情/发情的] [又见: diestrus间情期, pre-estrus动情前期, metestrus动情后期, reproductivecycling生殖周期] (Hess et al. 1983; Moss 1983:179,180-181;Buss 1990:111-114; Poole 1994:336; Brown 2000:348)雌性充满性欲的时期，也是排卵、交配高发的时期。只有在这段时期雌性允许雄性发生交配行为；雌性倾向于选择处在狂暴期的强壮雄象。性成熟、非怀孕雌象的动情周期通常是12-17周(85-120天)，发情持续2-6天。圈养象的发情可通过排卵期血液中增加的孕激素含量探测到。Period of "heat" infemales; associated with ovulation and the time that conception is most likelyto occur. Only during this period do females permit copulation by males; theyusually show a preference for older males, especially those in musth. Estruscycles are approximately 12-17 weeks (85-120 days) in sexually mature,non-pregnant females, and the estrous period usually lasts 2-6 days. Incaptivity estrus can be detected by a progesterone surge in the blood aroundthe time of ovulation.

Ethogram行为谱:(Immelmann & Beer 1989:91-92; Abramson & Carden 1998:206)一种动物全部行为的描述名录。尤其是对在基因影响下形成的仪式化行为的描述，对理解其通讯信息有重要意义。Descriptiveinventory of the elements which make up the entire behavior of a species,especially the genetically-influenced ritualized displays that communicatesignals from one individual to another.

Ethology行为学:(Wilson 1975:584; Immelmann & Beer 1989:92-93)研究自然条件下动物行为的学科，包括因果关系、外部刺激、内部生理机制、行为个体发育、进化行为学等内容。Studyof behavior under natural conditions, including the causation, externalstimulation, internal physiological mechanisms, ontogeny, and evolution ofbehavior.

Family unit家族:[同: family家庭, matriarchalfamily母系家庭, matriarchal unit母系单元;又见: social organization社群组成]有亲缘关系的雌性与其后代组成的单元。家族间存在长期的联系，分别重逢后，会相互发出欢迎的低隆声、并进行热情的欢迎仪式。草原象家族通常9-20个成员[如在肯尼亚安博塞利，每个家族平均9.4个成员，数量2-29个不等(Moss & Poole1983:315-316)]。对于森林象，常发现形成较小的家族[如中非共和国森林象平均家族大小为2.7(Turkalo & Fay 1995:48)]。家族"family unit"和 雌幼群"cow-calf group"有一些差别，家族中的雌象和幼象的亲缘关系近并长期保持密切关系。Relatedadult females and their immature offspring. They form very close long-termassociations and, after a period of separation, greet each other with greetingrumbles or an Intense Greeting Ceremony. In Loxodonta africana, usually 9-20individuals [e.g. at Amboseli, Kenya, family units averaged 9.4, with a rangeof 2-29 (Moss & Poole 1983:315-316)]. African forest elephants (Loxodontacyclotis), however, are usually found in smaller family units [e.g. averaging2.7 in Central African Republic (Turkalo & Fay 1995:48)]. There is someconfusion in the use of the terms "family unit" and "cow-calfgroup". Here a "family unit" consists of related females andtheir young that stay closely associated over time.

Female-choice雌性选择:[同: mate-selection配偶选择] (Moss1983:183,186,192,193; Poole 1987:311)雌性对于性伴侣主观的选择[通常是狂暴的雄象]。Active selection, byfemales, of specific males [usually those in musth] as sexual partners.

Fighting争斗:(Poole 1989a:143,145,147,150,151; Estes 1991:263; Poole 1994:337)通常指严重的打斗（争斗在狂暴象中升级）行为，与小象的争斗游戏不同（如小象中常见的对打）Generally refersto serious combat (e.g. the escalated contests between musth-bulls), as opposedto play-fighting (e.g. the Sparring often seen between young bulls).

Fil(Arabic)大象（阿拉伯语）: Word for elephant.

Flatlining乏情:[同: flatliner;又见: reproductivecycling生殖周期] (Schulte 1998:220; Brown 2000:356-358)发情周期缺失，尤其是在圈养的老年雌象身上Lack of estrous cycling, especially inolder captive females.

Flehmen性嗅:[又见: testing嗅探, vomeronasalorgan犁鼻器] (Rasmussen, et al. 1982; Schulte &Rasmussen 1999b:1269)指通过嗅觉检查以确定对方的性状态（如动情或非动情）。在大象中，性嗅行为通过接触其他象或其分泌物，并将象鼻指放入嘴中完成。大多数情况为雄性嗅探雌性，而雌性检查雄性或其他雌性的情况同样常见。Inelephants, it refers to the placing of the trunk-tip in the mouth afterolfactory testing of another elephant or its by-products. Presumably done inorder to determine the sexual status (i.e. estrous or non-estrous) of thefemale. Mostly done by males to females, but may also be performed by femalesto males or other females.

Free-contact自由接触:[又见: protected-contact保护性接触](Doyle 1993)人和圈养象可进行无保护性措施、不受约束的接触。Working withcaptive elephants, in which there is no barrier between the human and theelephant.

Frugivory果实性:(Savage & Long 1986:249; Estes 1991:561)食果实。Fruiteating.

Fundamental frequency基本频率，基频[缩写F.F.]: [又见:peak frequency峰值频率；dominant frequency优势频率](Berg 1983:65)象声中最低的频率。Lowest frequency of sound in anelephant vocalization.

Gajah(Sanskrit/Indonesian)大象（梵语/印尼语）: [also: gaja, gadja, gadjah, hathi ] (Tennent 1867:viii)通常指无牙象Elephant, generally with no tusks, in Sri Lanka.

Gaja-mukta(Sanskrit/Hindustani)象牙珍珠（梵语/印度斯坦语）: [also:gaja-moti ] (Shand 1996:143; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455; Hall 2000:162). SeeIvory-pearls.

Gaja-sastre(Sanskrit/Hindustani)象学（梵语/印度斯坦语）: [also:gaja-sastra, gaja-shastra ] (Cannon & Davis 1995:172; Shand 1996:24; Lair1997:269,277)公元前600-500年创作的大象科学著作，逐字翻译为大象知识或大象学[泰语对应kochasaat，僧伽罗语对应hasti-silpe；缅甸语对应sin-kyan] Ancient text on the science of elephants,written about 600-500 B.C.; literally "elephant knowledge","elephantology" [In Thailand the term is kochasaat ; in Sri Lanka itis hasti-silpe ; in Burma it is sin-kyan].

Ganai硬牙: (Eltringham 1982:206)指坚硬的长牙，特别是来自非洲森林象的牙Hard ivory, especially that coming fromforest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis).

Ganesh(Hindustani)独牙象（梵语）: [also: Gunesh , Ganesa ] (Sanderson1907: 67; Sanderson 1962: 17; Krishnan 1972:300; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456)指生来只有一边象牙的、特别是只有左牙（此处原文应有误）的大象，作为象头神的象征拥有极高的神圣性。Elephant bornwith only one tusk--frightfully holy in India, especially if it happens to bethe right tusk. Name given to an Asian bull that has only one tusk visible.Loosely, an elephant with a single tusk, as in the icon of the Hindu deityGanesha.

Ganesha(Hindustani)象头神（梵语）: (Cannon & Davis 1995:30-34,172)The elephant-headed Hindu god.

Gestation period怀孕期:[又见: pregnancy怀孕] (Moss1983:180; Buss 1990:31; Estes 1991:265)从母象怀孕到小象出生的时间间隔，通常长达22个月。在安博塞利，平均怀孕期在656±4天。生双胞概率小于1%；Laws (1969:205)曾记录3次生双胞（222次分娩观察），Moss (2001:150)曾记录1次生双胞（1192次分娩观察）。Periodbetween conception and birth of a calf; usually given as 22 months. AtAmboseli, Kenya, the mean gestation period was 656±4days. Twinning occurs in less than 1% of births; Laws (1969:205) found twins in3 out of 222 pregnancies, whereas Moss (2001:150) found only one instance in1192 births.

Goondah(Hindustani)独象（梵语）: [also: goonda ; see also: saun](Tennent 1867:48; Carrington 1958:170; Sukumar 1994:139,169; Lahiri-Choudhury1999:456)独行的野生雄性亚洲象，性格顽劣，行为暴躁。A wild single maleelephant; a mischievious elephant. Hindustani for "thug", badcharacter, rowdy. In Assam, this term refers to a rogue. There is someconfusion over the meaning of this term. It refers to adult male elephants. Notgenerally used in S. India. In NE India, it refers to a large mukhna [=tuskless male]. May be used, loosely, to include any large - and probablydangerous - male elephant. A loner.

G.P. Syndrome阴茎变色症:[同= green penis;又见: musth狂暴] (Poole & Moss 1981; Hall-Martin & van der Walt1984:148; Poole 1987:288)阴茎鞘末端灰绿或灰/白色的变色现象，见于狂暴雄性。可能由真菌生长引起。Apale greenish or grey/white discoloration on distal portion of penile-sheath,shown by musth males. Perhaps caused by a fungal growth.

Graveyard, elephant大象墓地:[同: elephant cemetery大象墓地](Hall 2000:256)虚构的大象濒死前去往的地方。可能由于象时常死在水旁，尸骨堆在一起引发为墓地的联想。Fictionalplace where elephants are said to go to die. Perhaps based on the fact thatthey frequently die near water, thereby causing carcasses to be clustered incertain areas.

Graviportal limb柱状肢:(Savage & Long 1986:249)粗壮、柱形的四肢，以适应承受超大负荷的体重Athick, columnar leg; adapted for bearing great weight.

Graze食草:[又见: browse] (Guy 1976:288,289,291,293; Hanks 1979:167;Owen-Smith 1982:360,372,373; Shoshani 1992:54)食草本植物。Toeat grass, forbs, etc. (i.e. herbaceous vegetation).

Grooming修饰行为:(Laursen & Bekoff 1978:6; Estes 1991:262)是安抚、自理相关行为的共同术语，包括打滚、泥浴、沙浴、沐浴、摩擦、刮蹭等。Collectiveterm for comfort-movements that deal with bodily-care; includes: wallowing,mudding, dusting, bathing, rubbing, scratching, etc.

Group群:[同: herd群]有协同活动或行为的数头象，如雄象群bullgroup、雌幼群cow-calf、混合群mixedgroup等。General term for number of elephants showingcoordinated movement and behavior. The term "group" is preferred(e.g. bull group, cow-calf group, mixed group, etc.)

Guda-marge(Hindustani)肛瓣（梵语）: [also meet-put (Burmese)] (Gale1974:157,158) Anal-fold [q.v.].

Gudda(Hindustani)象轿下的象鞍或护垫（梵语）: [also: guddie ] (Shand 1992:24; Shand1996:12; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456) Saddle or pad that goes under the howdah.

Guide驯导:刺棒驯象的委婉说法。端部有指长、锋利、弯曲金属钩的短棒，用以控制和驯服圈养象。钩处刺激象耳后敏感皮肤，迫其做出反应。Aeuphemism for ankus [q.v.]. Short stick with a sharp, curved, finger-lengthmetal hook at the tip, used to control and direct captive elephants. A hookedgoad for driving elephants.

Habituation习惯化:(Immelmann & Beer 1989:126-127)对于某事物，行为反应弱化的过程，是学习忽略无意义事物的过程，Waningof original behavioral response to something that shows no significance. Ingeneral terms, learning to ignore something that does not matter.

Hadâm(Arabic)工作牙（阿拉伯语）: (Baker 1890:29)更多使用于干活的长牙，如挖掘等，表面磨损更眼中，通常为右长牙。Theworking tusk - usually the right - is used more than the other to dig, etc.,and is, therefore, more worn down.

Han(Burmese)短牙雄象（缅甸语）:[see also: aliya, hine, hinge, mukhna, pussa, tai] (Williams 1950:44; Gale1974:157; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456)无长牙、仅有类似雌象短牙的雄象Bullwith short, stout tusks. Tuskless bull with only small tushes, such as femalescarry.

Hanko(Japanese)判子（日语）: (Williams 1989:158-159; Chadwick1992:217; Holt-Biddle 1994:75,78)签署公文时使用的个人身份证明的印章，象牙判子是高地位的象征Personalsignature seals, commonly called "chops", used in Japan to signofficial documents. Using a hanko made from ivory confers an elevated status onthe user.

Hastyayurvedah,

The: (Edgerton 1931:viii,xvii)古梵语著作中应用在大象身上的物品，主要与治疗相关。Ancient Sanskrit work on elephants,dealing primarily with medical treatment.

Hathi(Hindustani/Sanskrit)大象（印度斯坦语/梵语）: [also:haathi, hat'hi, hasti, hasthi, hasthin, gaj, gajah, pil ] (Sillar & Meyler1968:112; Daniel 1998:196; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456) Word for elephant.

Hathi jokar(Hindustani)象颤（印度斯坦语）: (Hall 2000:229)象夫用来形容大象面对面遭遇野生离群象时的恐惧，称为“大象的颤栗”。The"elephant-shivers", a term used by mahouts to describe how it feelsto come face to face with a wild rogue.

Hathisar(Nepalese)象厩（尼泊尔语）: (Wemmer 2000:59)在尼泊尔，象厩通常与象夫住宅成为一体。InNepal, elephant stable with facilities for mahout families.

Helper帮手:(M. Garai, pers. comm.)协助族长保卫象群的雌象。Females that help the matriarch defend the group.

Herd群:[同: group] (Estes 1991:562)同group一词。

Hindgut fermenter后肠发酵:(Estes 1991:562)非反刍食草动物，如大象，在盲肠和大肠发酵分解纤维素。Non-ruminantherbivore, such as elephant, in which breakdown of cellulose occurs in thececum and large intestine.

Hine(Burmese)无牙雄象（缅甸语）: [also: haing, hinge ; see also:mukhna, han, tai] (Williams 1950:44; Gale 1974:157; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456)Tuskless bull.

Home-range家域:[又见: migration迁徙,population-density种群密度] (Owen-Smith 1982:388,392; Poole& Moss 1989:112; Estes 1991:261; Shoshani 1992:54)一头象或象群特定活动的区域；面积大小取决于地区的生产力水平，小到14平方公里（如坦桑尼亚马尼亚拉），大到3500平方公里（如干旱的纳米比亚西北部沙漠）。Areautilized by an elephant or group of elephants; depending on the productivity ofthe region, it may be as small as 14 km2 (e.g. at L. Manyara, Tanzania) or aslarge as 3500 km2 (in arid country, such as the desert of NW Namibia).

Hora allia(Sinhalese)离群象（僧伽罗语）:[also: hora or ronkedoors (Dutch)] (Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456)斯里兰卡地区对离群象的称呼。但是否是独象或仅仅是攻击性强雄象的称谓并不明确。Term used in Sri Lankafor rogue elephants. It is not always clear whether it signifies all unattachedmales, or just aggressive, dangerous males.

Howdah(Urdu)象轿（乌尔都语）: [see also: char-jarma] (Chadwick1992:383; Shand 1992:25; Sukumar 1994:169; Cannon & Davis 1995:172;Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:456)在亚洲，驯养象背上箱型、带遮蓬的座椅，常用于狩猎。Riding chairs, for two or more, often with a canopy, used on domesticatedelephants, primarily in Asia; used mostly for hunting. A box-like structuretied on an elephant's back to carry people.

Human-Elephant Conflict人象冲突: [缩写= H.E.C.][又见: Problem Elephant Control问题象管理]人类和大象发生冲突的状况，如盗食庄稼时攻击人类或家畜的事件。Situations whereelephants and humans come into conflict, e.g. crop-raiding, attacking livestockor humans.

Hypsodont高冠齿:[又见: molar臼齿, brachyodont低冠齿] (Owen-Smith 1982:384; Estes 1991:562; Sukumar 1992:81;Shoshani 1998:481)指齿冠高度大于齿根高度的齿型，相对平的研磨表面。适应挤压碾磨粗纤维食物。Referringto molars with high-crowns and relatively flat grinding-surfaces. Tall teeth.

Immobilization保定:(McKenzie 1993:680)指利用化学保定药使动物安定下来。Term used for thechemical restraint of an animal. Tranquilizing.

Incisor门齿:(Hanks 1979:168)哺乳动物上下颌前方中央部位的牙齿。象有一对，上颌第二门齿，成为长牙或短牙（对应亚洲象雌象）。Premaxillarytooth of a mammal. Elephants have one, the second upper incisor: the tusk ortush.

Infrasound次声波:(Payne, et al. 1986; Poole et al. 1988:385,386,391; Poole 1994:332,341,344)声频低于人耳可听范围[<20-30赫兹]的声波；在安博塞利，10小时的象声取样，只有27%的声音记录为人耳可听见的（Poole & Moss 1989:117）。象可识别1.5公里外发声的个体，对于有些强大的低频声音在5-10公里外都能被接收到。Soundfrequenciesbelow the range of human-hearing [<20-30 Hz]; in a 10hr sample of rumble-vocalizations at Amboseli, Kenya, only 27% of the recordedcalls were audible to the human observers (Poole & Moss 1989:117). Some ofthese low frequency calls are extremely powerful. Elephants are able toidentify calling individuals up to 1.5 km away (McComb, et al. 2000), andpowerful infrasonic calls can probably be heard up to 5-10 km away.

Inter-calf interval产犊间期:[又见: lactational anestrus哺乳乏情期,recruitment, natality出生率] (Laws 1969:203-205,214-215;Hanks 1972b:13,18,24; Williamson 1976:89,90; Moss 2001:151-152,154)雌性两次分娩间隔的时间，通常3-9年（极端：2.75/13年；Laws 1969:203），取决于环境条件。Intervalbetween births by a given female; usually ranges from 3-9 yrs (extremes:2.75-13 yrs; Laws 1969:203), depending on environmental conditions.

Inter-musth狂暴间期:[又见: musth, stages of狂暴期;near-musth近狂暴期; peri-musth近狂暴期](Poole 1987:304)两次狂暴发作间隔的时间，在年轻雄性身上表现明显，比老雄象频率更高。Periodsbetween bouts of musth, shown primarily by younger [25-35 yrs] males, whichseem togo in and out o fmusth more than older males.

Ivory象牙:[又见:长牙tusks] (Espinoza &Mann 1992; Shoshani 1992:47[photo],59)以象牙为原料，经加工制成各类工艺品，主要成分为牙本质Materialof which elephant-tusks are composed; made up mostly of dentine. It is used inthe manufacture of a great variety of artifacts.

Ivory, grades of象牙等级:(Eltringham 1982:205)根据象牙制品的重量和形状将商用象牙分级，售价粗略按照以下分级Gradesof commercial ivory, according to its weight and shape. Selling price roughlyfollows this sequence.

Vilaiti:超过18公斤的象牙，通常来自成年雄性。Tusksweighing over 18 kg, usually originating from adult males.

Cutchi:(Parker & Amin 1983:149) 9-18公斤的象牙，大多来自雄性。特级象牙用以制作手镯Tusksweighing from 9-18 kg, mostly from males. Special grade of tusks used to makebangles.

Calasia:超过4.5公斤的雌象象牙，直径5-7.5厘米Tusks, from females, weighing more than 4.5 kg and between5-7.5 cm in diameter.

Fankda:4.5-9公斤的雄象象牙Tusks, from males, weighing from 4.5-9 kg.

Maksub:2.3-4.5公斤的象牙，不论性别Tusks, from either sex, weighing from2.3-4.5 kg.

Dandia:小于2.3公斤的象牙，不论性别Tusks, fromeither sex, weighing less than 2.3 kg.

Chinai:残缺象牙，不论质量Defective tusks of any weight.

Ivory pearls象牙珍珠:[see also: gaja-mukta, gaja-moti ] (Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:455; Hall 2000:162)小圆珠，类似象牙的材料制成，在亚洲价值较高。Small, round inclusions that appear tobe composed of the same material as the tusk, which are sometimes found in thetip of the pulp of a tusk. Highly valued in Asia. Necklaces of "elephantpearls" are frequently mentioned in ancient Sanskrit literature.

Jacobson's organ犁鼻器:[同: vomeronasal organ犁鼻器;又见: testing嗅探] (Rasmussen et al.1982:160; Rasmussen et al. 1984:360; Estes 1991:263,565-566)开口于口腔顶壁的化学感受器，对于尿液相关的嗅觉信息格外敏感。Area, located in the roof of the mouth, that is sensitive to olfactory cues,especially those associated with urine.

Juvenile-care unit护幼组:[see also: nursing unit育幼组] (McKay 1973:72-75,79-80)亚洲象中，雌象和已断奶幼象的组合。A type of cow-calf group among Elephas,composed of females and post-weaning juveniles but no infants.

Juvenile-musth弱狂暴:[see also: moda] (Chandrasekharan et al. 1992:71-72; Rasmussen et al. 2002:975)圈养青年象[11-20岁]有时会表现出的近狂暴状态，只表现狂暴态的部分行为。Near-musthcondition sometimes shown by young [11-20 years old] males in captivity. Theymay show some signs of musth but not attain full-musth.

Kalasha(language ?? [Kenya])雌象牙制品:(Neumann 1898:46) Cow ivory.

Karaka(Kiswahili)跟缺:(Smith 1992:146,148)斯瓦西里语中大象脚跟后缘磨损的情况，是年龄、体型以及象牙尺寸的指示。Kiswahiliterm for the worn patch on the hind edge of the heel of an old elephant; a goodindication of age/size....and, therefore, possible tusk-size.

Kari(Sanskrit):(Shand 1996:55)梵语中对大象脚部疾病的说法。Ancient word forelephant. Disease of the feet of elephants.

Katapurna(Sanskrit): [see also: kherr musth] (Edgerton 1931:116)梵语中指肿胀的颞区，指示雄象第一阶段的狂暴状态。"Full-in-the-temples";bull in the first stage of musth, with swollen temporal glands.

Keystone species基石物种:(Shoshani 1993)一种对于其栖息环境以及环境中其他生物有重要生态影响的物种。象在对环境的影响上仅次于人类：如破坏性取食将灌丛变为草地、挖掘水源为其他动物提供饮水处等。Aspecies that has major ecological effects on its habitat and, therefore, onother species living in the same area. Elephants are second only to humans inthe alteration of their habitat: e.g. by destructive feeding they change bushto grassland, by digging for water they provide drinking places for otheranimals, etc.

Kheddah(Hindustani):[also: keddah, khedda, kheda, kheddha, khedna, k'hedah, gad shikar ] (Tennent1867:104; Sanderson 1907: 72; Sukumar 1992:38,217; Spinage 1994:280-282; Daniel1998:208a[photo],208b-c[photo],210,212-225)在印度，以驯养象驱赶野生象被包围在提前设置的捕捉栅栏中的方法。栅栏通常以原木或木桩构成。在斯里兰卡，这这方法对应kraal一词，缅甸对应kyone，梵语对应vari。Method of capturing elephants, in India, where entire herdsare driven into a corral or stockade using trained elephants as"drivers". The high-walled stockade, made of logs or wooden poles,into which elephants are driven. In Sri Lanka the term is kraal; in Burma it iskyone ; in Sanskrit it is vari.

Kherr musth(Hindustani)科尔狂暴:[see also: katapurna, near-musth, peri-musth] (Edgerton 1931:37; McGaughey1963:105; Daniel 1998:124)狂暴态的第一阶段，颞腺肿胀。First stage ofmusth; sometimes called "temple-filled", which refers to the swollentemporal glands.

Kinship group亲属群:[又见: bond group, kin group族群；socialorganization社群组成] (Moss 1988:34,35; Poole 1994:331,332)长期保持联系的两个或以上有亲缘关系的家族；在久别重逢后，会相互发出问候的隆声音，并进行高强度的问候仪式。Twoor more related family units, who show a strong association over time; after aseparation they greet each other with greeting rumbles or an Intense GreetingCeremony.

Kalouk(language ?)象铃:[also: khalauk] (Gale 1974:158)佩戴在象颈处的木铃或铁铃，用以寻找大象，在亚洲广泛使用。Woodenor iron bell tied on the neck of an elephant to track its whereabouts; mostlyused in Asia.

Koomeriah(Hindustani):[also: koomerah, komeriah, koomra, bhadra ] (Sanderson 1907: 83,84,85x[drawing],85,92; Sanderson 1962: 260; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:457)在印度，大象根据品行、血统和能力等被归到不同种姓。Koomeriah是良种、高等级的大象，其身形结构被视作最有价值的特征，拥有温和、勇敢、自律、从容、聪明、强壮等特点，适宜训作工作象。Thoroughbred;a high caste of elephant that is calm, brave, disciplined, deliberate,ingenious, and strong, favored as a work elephant. In India, captive elephantsare often referred to, as to which caste of elephants they belong. The mostprized body-structure in elephants.

Koonkie(Hindustani/Burmese)校长象:[also: koomkie, khoonki, koonki, kunkie, kumchee, kumki ] (Sanderson 1907:70-71,126; Lair 1997:47,80; Daniel 1998:110,208d[photo])缅甸语男校长的意思，通常为驯化良好、温顺耐心的无牙雄象，45-50岁，用于捕捉和训练其他工作象。Sanderson (1907: 126)记述在孟加拉校长象均为雌象；原词意为协助，来自于印度斯坦文。故此词可指雄象或雌象，取决于使用的区域。kumuk，Burmese for "schoolmaster". A well-traineddomestic elephant; often a tuskless male between 45-50 years of age, chosen forhis docility and patience. Used for catching and training working elephants. Sanderson(1907: 126) says in Bengal they were all females; word derived from Hindustani"kumuk ", meaning aid. Can be either male or female, depending on thearea in which the word is used. [See long discussion in Lahiri-Choudhury1999:457-458.]

Kraal(language ?):[also: korahl, corral; see also: kheddah, ath-gala] (Jayewardene 1994:9,121;Cannon & Davis 1995:172; Lahiri-Choudhury 1999:458)小型围场。在斯里兰卡，此词用于表示用围栏捕捉大量大象的方法。Smallenclosure. In Sri Lanka, the method of capturing large numbers of elephants bythe use of a stockade.

Kumbha(Sinhalese)颅球（僧伽罗语）: [also: kumbastale] (Edgerton1931:71,117; Jayewardene 1994:121)亚洲象头顶两个半球状的结构。Twolarge domes on the top of an Asian elephant's head.

Kumla(Hindustani):[see also: mela-shikar] (Daniel 1998:211)留在营地负责校长象食物的人。Manwho remains in camp and is responsible for feeding the koonkies.

Kyan zit(Burmese): (Sanderson 1962: 215)缅甸语中指奇怪形态的象牙，比如垂直牙根向上的象牙等。Odd tusk-form "in which bothtusks are regularly ringed, constricted, and ridged throughout their length andright up to their roots, like a bamboo."