雅思考官分享：提高雅思写作Task1分数的8个方法 | InVi
作者：Dr. James McCloskey
翻译：InVisor新媒体小编VC
英文原文请见文末。
Dr. James McCloskey, 应用语言学博士，持有英国皇家学会/剑桥大学TEFL学位。Jim博士是资深前雅思考官，目前于英国帝国理工学院担任英语导师。
欢迎阅读James的另外一个回答：关于口语考试提分的8个要点
在这个回答中，我将重点讨论雅思写作中的第一部分（Part 1）。
1、如何理解雅思写作的评分标准？
阅读公开的雅思写作评分标准，我们可以看到，下图中，左边两栏“切题”、“连贯与衔接”和右边两栏“词汇资源（词汇）”和“语法结构的范围和准确性”是有明显分界的。左边两栏和你的语言技能没有太大关系，主要是关于思考和组织能力的。右边的两栏是关于你的语言能力的：考查你在大量学习和练习后掌握的词汇和语法。
这意味着什么呢？这意味着你没有任何理由在左边两项中拿到低于7的分数。要拿到这两项的7分，你只需要根据指示做题目要求你做的事情，并且符合逻辑，就是这么简单。与实际的写作相比，知道要写什么以及按照什么顺序写简单多了。
所以，在作答之前，你可以主要通过分析和计划（详见第2点）拿到左边两项的分数。
雅思写作评分标准
*有需要的同学可点击https://takeielts.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/2018-01/IELTS_task_1_Writing_band_descriptors.pdf下载
但在讲第二点之前，让我们先看看“连贯”和“衔接”是什么意思。
连贯性是指你是否有逻辑地组织你的文章。例如，当在图表或表格中描述数据时，最合乎逻辑的做法是先从最明显的特征开始，然后转向下一个重要的特征。因此，你答案的结构可能就像一个漏斗。顶部大，然后随着细节的增加而缩小。显然，由细节开始而把主要部分作为结尾显然是没有意义的，这就会是不合逻辑或不连贯的。
连贯性拿到7的标准是：“有逻辑地组织信息和想法，整个过程有清晰的进展”，换句话说，你需要识别主要特征和次要特征，然后合理地进行排列。连贯写作的其中一部分就是把你的想法组织整理成段落。所以，正如你所知道的那样，你需要一个介绍/引导性的段落。在7分及7分以下的分段，结尾段是可选的，但你必须有一个结尾段以在连贯性部分获得8分或9分（你会发现，官方要求中唯一一次提到“分段”是在9分段）。连贯性的最关键的一点是——它100%独立于你的语言技能。它只关乎于内容的组织。
衔接是与语言相关的。它是关于你用来介绍事物的语言，把事物连接起来的语言，比较和对比事物的语言的。所以，“是的没错”，这是一种语言技能，但实际上，你所需要的即使是要在衔接上得8分或9分的语言，有时真的非常简单，例如：
引导新内容：‘Regarding X’, ‘Turning to X’ or ‘As for X’
将内容连接在一起：‘and’, ‘furthermore’, or ‘in addition’
比较和对比：‘similarly’, ‘likewise’, ‘in contrast’, or ‘on the other hand’
连接性语言中的错误实际上相当少见。即使是5分考生也能相当准确地理解和使用这种语言。但有一个温馨提示：不要过度使用。一些老师说“你使用的语言越有连接性越好”。考生听到这句话后，就会到处“洒”上这样的语言；甚至是在并不真正需要的时候！当考生试图通过过度使用衔接性语言来提高衔接性时，考官很快就会注意到。为了强调这一点，你可以看一下对衔接这一项要拿到9分的要求，它说:“使用衔接的方式是不引人注意的。”换句话说，当以英语为母语的人写得很连贯时，你几乎注意不到他们是怎么写的。
这里有一个小技巧，对中国考生特别有用：多用“指示代词”。指示词是像“this”或“these”这样的词。例如“this trend/increase/fall”，“these percent /figures/sales”。研究表明，中国学生很少使用指示代词，因为它们不在普通话中出现。相比之下，欧洲学生使用的频率要高50%，而且指示代词的使用率会随着分数从5分增加到6分，从6分增加到7分而增加。使用指示代词是一个能很好地说明如何在不“引人注意”的情况下使写作更连贯，出错的几率也很低例子。参见下面第6点中的示例文本，你可以了解一些使用指示代词的例子。
2、在动笔写作前做计划！
诱惑太大了！你只有20分钟的时间去快速浏览题目，然后在时间耗尽之前尽可能多地写作。你还会感觉到考场里的其他人已经在你之前就开始写了——“哦，不！他们领先了！"
下面的建议听起来可能有悖于直觉，但请认真考虑一下。虽然20分钟并不长，但足够给你3分钟、4分钟甚至5分钟的时间来思考任务并做出正确的计划。在上面的第一点我们说过，你的分数有50%不是因为你的语法或词汇，而是因为你分析和组织语言的质量。在你思考和计划的时间里，你会得到这些分数。
如果你不做计划，你可能会在切题、连贯性和衔接方面失去关键的分数。而这些都是容易获得的分数。当然，你需要练习这项技能。当你写作文时，给自己留出这段计划的时间，在写作前对你要写的要点做简短的笔记。当你养成这样做的习惯时，你会发现你是可以做到的，而且你写的文章也更有条理。关键就在于你开始写之前知道自己要写什么。
但也许你在想：如果我花时间来计划，我会有足够的时间完成写作吗？如果你让雅思5分的考生就一个熟悉的话题写200个词，比如“他们的爱好”或“他们的家乡”，他们很可能用10分钟就能写完。如果你在开始之前知道要写什么，就会容易得多。如果你开始写作，并在写作的过程中反复停下来思考下一行应该写什么，这反而会花费更长的时间，连贯性可能会更差。
3、写够190个词！
下面是一些雅思官方公布的关于Task 1中中国考生字数的数据。
由此可见，如果你写的单词数量远低于190个，通常不会得到6或7分。150个词不应该是你的目标。为了显示丰富的词汇和语法，你需要写多达200个单词。事实上，5分的西班牙考生在答题中平均写220个单词，7分的西班牙考生在答题中平均写240个单词。但别担心！这种差异突出了质量和数量之间的平衡。不仅要看长度，还要看质量。与西班牙考生相比，中国考生的写作通常具有更高的高级词汇密度。这意味着他们可以和西班牙的同龄人一样得高分，而写的单词却少一些。如果你是一名雅思老师，并且你对此感兴趣，请点击这里查看文献。
4、写作时，要假设读者看不到题目
有时候，考生会绞尽脑汁，想“我还能写些什么呢？我已经把能写的都写了！”但其实并非如此。通常，他们都忽略了图表的明显特征。所以，写作时的关键是想象读者看不到你所看到的题目。在写作的时候，假设你在向一个盲人描述图表，你要去更加细致地描述主要的和明显的特征——如果你这样想，你就会发现有更多的东西要写，并且能够展示更多的语法和词汇。请看下面的例子。
这张图展示了水力发电是如何产生的，请通过选择和报告主要特性来总结信息。
参考答案如下：
The diagram describes the process by which electricity is generated by harnessing the power of water, as well as how this electricity is distributed to where it is needed.
A dam is located between two areas of water at different levels. The higher level of water is the reservoir.The process of generating electricity begins when reservoir water flows through an intake in the dam wall. This flow of water is controlled by a control gate. When the gate is open, water naturally flows downwardsfrom the reservoir through the penstock towards a turbine. The turbine is located in the powerhouse under the generator and transformer.The power of this water causes the turbine to spin and electricity in produced by the generator. After passing the turbine, the water continues to flow downwards and thenpasses from the outflow into the lower area of water. The electricity generated then passes through the transformer and is distributed to residential areas over large distances via powerlines high above the ground, where it is used for streetlighting and other purposes.
Overall, the electricity generated in this process is produced in a sustainable and environmentally-friendly manner.(192)
上文中，加粗部分其实完全可以删除，文本仍然很完美。但是加粗的部分实际上给文章增加了69个单词。所有这些词都为读者提供了有用的额外信息。所以，想象读者看不到你能看到的信息，包括这些内容——即使对你来说是显而易见的。否则，可能很难达到190-200个单词！
5、分类至关重要
通过将类似的项目分组并贴上标签，可以更容易地识别出“宏观”趋势，并避免逐一描述单个项目。请看下面的例子：
上图显示了2006年和2016年儿童每天使用不同类型媒体的时间。通过选择和报告主要特性来总结信息，并在相关的方面进行比较。至少写150个词。
参考答案如下：
The bar chart shows how much time children spent a day on various kinds of media in 2006 and 2016. Overall, there was a trend away from traditional mediasuch as TV, music, books and magazines and a growth in the use of newer media, notably phones and computers.
“traditional media”和“newer media”这两个类别并没有提供给你。你必须自己创造它们。像这样的分类是有用的，因为它们让你“用粗线条描绘”。记住，写作就是“在纸上思考”！你需要好的思维才能写出好的文章！所以，一定要给自己留出适当的时间来分析任务，并一直寻找将相似项目有逻辑地分组的方法。
6、学会使用数据
你应该在答案中使用数据(日期、数字、百分比等)，如果你没有使用一些关键数据，你的切题部分不会超过5分——即使你是一个母语写作者。但是“写一长串的东西来描述图表或表格中的所有日期”的做法是错误的。如果你这样做，你所写作的文本看起来会非常冗长。因此，尽量把内容限制为主要的数字，记住，你也可以用单词来描述趋势（下面文本中用加粗显示）。
Between 2006 and 2016, the use of different types of media changed significantly, with the exception of video games. In 2006, watching TV was the most popular activity at 2.5 hours a day, whereas only 0.1 hours were spent using social media and phones. From 2006 to 2016, the use of phones and social media rose significantly and replaced TV as the number one media activity at 2.5 hours per day. During thissame period, time spent watching TV fell considerably and became one of the least favourite types of media. Other traditional media, such as listening to music and reading also became far less popular. By 2016, children spent 50% less time using these media at 0.6 hours and 0.3 hours per day respectively. This contrasts with time spent using computers, which nearly doubled from 0.6 to 1.1 hours per day between 2006and 2016.
*斜体部分为指示性代词或形容词
7. 学会进行比较
如果你的任务是一个图表或数据表，那么总是会有“在相关的部分进行比较”的指示的。我们鼓励你这样做，因为如果你做得好，你将能展示更广泛的词汇和语法。当你“进行比较”时，你应该识别出哪些是相似的，哪些是不同的。请查看下面以加粗字体突出的所有比较语言。
该图表显示了1985年至2015年在英国修读本科、研究生和基础课程的国际学生的百分比。通过选择和报告主要特性来总结信息，并在必要时进行比较。
参考答案如下：
The line graph illustrates the proportion of overseas students on UK postgraduate, undergraduate and foundation courses from 1985 to 2015. Overall, far more international students studied undergraduate courses than postgraduate or foundation courses during this period with the exception of 2010.
In 1985, the proportion of international students taking undergraduate and postgraduate courses was broadly similarat around 40%. This contrasted tojust less than 15% of students taking foundation courses. From 1985 to 2000, the proportion of undergraduate level students rose steadily to peak at approximately 75%. During the same period, the percentage of students on postgraduate level courses fell continuously to just over 20%, and students attending foundation courses dropped from just below 20% to about 3%. From 2005 to 2010, the percentage of students taking postgraduate courses soared from just above 20% to around 55%, while, on the other hand, the percentage for undergraduate courses plummeted from about 70% to 40%. As a result, 2010 was the only year between 1985 and 2015 when the percentage of postgraduates was higher than the percentage of undergraduates. In the final five-year period from 2010 to 2015, the proportion of postgraduate students fell sharply to approximately 30%, whereas the proportion on undergraduate courses recovered to around 55% and foundation courses reached a high of nearly 20%.
8、识别异常值！
我们已经提到，作文中没有必要包括所有的数据，但要注意任何例外或突出的东西。雅思考试的每一项任务通常都会有一个异常值，这个值并不符合总体趋势。这些任务的设计是包含这些“异常”的。请看下面加粗显示的文本:
Overall, far more international students studied undergraduate courses than postgraduate or foundation courses during this period with the exception of 2010.
As a result, 2010 was the only year between 1985 and 2015 when the percentage of postgraduates was higher than the percentage of undergraduates.
以上就是我这篇回答的全部内容了！
总的来说，关键信息是：以在评估标准 “更容易/更宽松”的左侧最大化你的分数为目标。
一个语法和词汇都达到7分的考生可能会因为糟糕的分析和组织而搞砸考试，而且总分只有6分。另一方面，语言水平达到6分的考生可以通过对计划和组织的重视把总体得分提到6.5分。
所以，在你急着写之前，先思考和计划一下!
此外:
不要忘记陈述显而易见的事情：想象你的读者看不到你所看到的
寻找聪明的方法将信息组合在一起
使用数据，避免重复结构，尽可能进行比较和对比
还有，练习，练习，练习！关键是训练自己在15分钟内写200个单词。
想咨询James老师关于雅思的问题？欢迎联系InVisor小助手微信：invisor001
*以下为英文原文
Previously, we looked at 8 essentials for the speaking exam– now let’s turn to writing and task 1. There’s a lot of very basic information you probably already know, such as the type of vocabulary and structures required for each task type and the fact that you should only DESCRIBE what you see. You should not offer opinions or speculate on the reasons behind a particular trend. In this article, we’ll explore other things that are useful to be aware of.
1. Understand what is being assessed
If you look at the public band descriptors below, you can see a clear division between Task Achievement+ Coherence and Cohesionin the two left columns and Lexical Resource(= vocabulary) and Grammatical Range and Accuracy on the right. The two left-hand columns are notprincipally about language skills. They are about thinking and organisation skills. The two columns on the right areabout your language competence: the knowledge and skills you have acquired through studying textbook after textbook and completing countless vocabulary and grammar building exercises! What does this mean? It means there’s really no excuse for scoring below 7 on the two left-hand criteria. To score 7 on the left side, you just need to do what the tasks instructs you to do. And do it in a logical way. It’s that simple. It is much easier to know whatyou need to write and the orderit should be written in compared to actually writing it. So, you earn marks on the left side mainly through analysis and planning (see point 2) beforeyou even write a word on your answer sheet.
But before moving on to point 2, let’s just check what is meant by ‘coherence’ and ‘cohesion’.
Coherence is about whether or not you organise your text in a logical way. For example, when describing data in a graph, chart or table, it might be most logical to start with the most obvious features first then move onto the next most significant feature then the next etc. The structure of your answer might therefore be like a funnel. Big at the top then narrowing as you include more detail. It clearly would notmake sense to start with small details then end by describing the ‘big picture’ at the end. That would be illogical or incoherent.
The band 7 criteria for coherence says: ‘logically organises information and ideas; there is clear progression throughout’. In other words, you need to identify the main and minor features, then order them sensibly. Part of writing coherently is organising your ideas into paragraphs. So, as you probably know already, you need an introductory paragraph. The concluding paragraph is optional at band 7 and below, but you must have a concluding paragraph to score band 8 or 9 for coherence (you’ll notice that the only mention of ‘paragraphing’ is at band 9). The key point about coherence is that it is 100% independentof your language skills. It’s only about organisationof content.
Cohesion ISabout language. It’s about the language you use to introduce things, join things together, and compare and contrast things. So, ‘yes’ it is a language skill, but actually the language you need, even to score 8 or 9 in cohesion, is sometimes really very simple. For example:
To introduce new content: ‘Regarding X’, ‘Turning to X’ or ‘As for X’
To join content together: ‘and’, ‘furthermore’, or ‘in addition’
To compare and contrast: ‘similarly’, ‘likewise’, ‘in contrast’, or ‘on the other hand’
Errors in such language are actually quite uncommon. Even band 5 candidates can understand and use this language quite accurately. But one gentle warning: DON’T overuse it. Some teachers say “the morecohesive language you use the better”. Candidates hear this then ‘sprinkle’ such language everywhere; even when it’s not really needed! Examiners quickly notice when candidates are trying to score more highly on cohesion by overusing cohesive language. Just to emphasises this point, if you look at the band 9 description for cohesion it says: ‘uses cohesion in such a way that it attracts no attention’. In other words, when native speakers write cohesively, you hardly even notice how they do it.
And here’s a small tip which is particularly relevant to Chinese candidates: use more ‘demonstratives’. Demonstratives are words like ‘this’ or ‘these’. For example: ‘thistrend/increase/fall’ or ‘thesepercentages/figures/sales’. Research shows that demonstratives are underused by Chinese students because they do not occur in Mandarin. In contrast, European students use them 50% more often, and their use increases as band scores increase from 5 to 6 and from 6 to 7. Using demonstratives is a good example of how to make writing more cohesive without ‘attracting attention’ and with a very low chance of making an error. See the example text in point 6 below for some examples of demonstratives ‘in action’.
2. Planning is key
The temptation is so strong! You only have 20 minutes, a quick look at the task and then it’s a race to write as much as you can before your time runs out. And you can feel others in the exam room have already started writing before you – ‘Oh No! They’re ahead already!
The following advice may seem counterintuitive but do consider it. Although 20 minutes is not long, it islong enough to give you 3, 4 or even 5 minutes to think about the task and plan properly. In point 1 above, we said that 50% of your marks will be earned notbecause of your grammar or vocabulary, but because of the quality of your analysis and organisation. You will earn thesemarks in the time you take to think and plan.
If you don’t plan you could lose crucial marks on task achievement, and coherence and cohesion. And these are the easy marks to earn. Of course, you need to practice this skill. When you do past papers, allow yourself this planning time and make very brief notes on the points you will cover before you write. When you get into the habit of doing this, you’ll notice that you cando it, and that you write a better organised text. The key is knowing WHAT you’re going to write BEFORE you start writing. But perhaps you’re thinking: ‘If I spend time planning, will I have enough time to finish?’ If you ask even an IELTS band 5 writer to write 200 words on a familiar topic like ‘their hobbies’ or ‘their hometown’, they could probably do so easily in just 10 minutes. When you know what you’re going to write before you start, it’s much easier. If you start writing, then stop, then think, then keep stopping and thinking about what each next line should be, it will take longer and coherence is more likely to be poorer.
3. Write 190 words!
Here’s some published data from IELTS on word counts for actual Chinese candidates in Task 1.
So, if you write much below 190 words, it’s not typical to score a 6 or 7. The 150 word minimum word count should NOT be your target. In order to display a wide range or vocabulary and grammar, you need to be writing up to 200 words. Actually, Spanish candidates write around 220 words on average when scoring a band 5 answer and 240 words for a band 7 answer! But don’t worry! This just difference highlights the balance between qualityand quantity. It’s not only about the length, it’s also about the quality. Compared to Spanish candidates, Chinese candidates’ writing typically has a much greater density of high-level vocabulary. This means that they can score as high as their Spanish counterparts while writing a little less. If you’re an IELTS teacher and you’re interested, here’s the research: click
4. Imagine the reader cannot seethe task
Sometimes candidates run out of ideas and think ‘What else can I write! I’ve written everything!’ This is usually not the case. Usually, they have ignored obvious features of the chart or diagram. The key is to imagine that you reader cannotsee what you see. Imagine you were describing the chart or diagram to a blind person – you would be much more careful in describing the main and obvious features. If you think this way, you will have more to write about and be able to display a wider variety of grammar and vocabulary. Look at the example below:
The diagram shows how hydroelectricity is generated by hydropower, or the ‘power of water’. Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features.
The diagram describes the process by which electricity is generated by harnessing the power of water, as well as how this electricity is distributed to where it is needed.
A dam is located between two areas of water at different levels. The higher level of water is the reservoir.The process of generating electricity begins when reservoir water flows through an intake in the dam wall. This flow of water is controlled by a control gate. When the gate is open, water naturally flows downwardsfrom the reservoir through the penstock towards a turbine. The turbine is located in the powerhouse under the generator and transformer.The power of this water causes the turbine to spin and electricity in produced by the generator. After passing the turbine, the water continues to flow downwards and thenpasses from the outflow into the lower area of water. The electricity generated then passes through the transformer and is distributed to residential areas over large distances via powerlines high above the ground, where it is used for streetlighting and other purposes.
Overall, the electricity generated in this process is produced in a sustainable and environmentally-friendly manner.(192)
The areas highlighted could be cut out completely and the text would still make perfect sense. But the blue areas actually add 69 words. And all these words provide useful extra information for the reader. So, imagine the reader can’t see the information you can, and include such content – even if it seems too obvious to you. Otherwise, it might be difficult to reach 190-200 words!
5. Categorising is essential
By grouping and labelling similar items together, it is easier to identify ‘big picture’ trends and avoid the need to describe individual items one by one. For example, look at the graph below:
The graph above gives information on the number of hours per day children spent using different types of media for the years 2006 and 2016. Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features, and make comparisons where relevant. Write at least 150 words.
Here’s the introduction an answer:
The bar chart shows how much time children spent a day on various kinds of media in 2006 and 2016. Overall, there was a trend away from traditional mediasuch as TV, music, books and magazines and a growth in the use of newer media, notably phones and computers.
The categories ‘traditional media’ and ‘new media’ were notgiven to you. You had to create them yourself. Categories like these are useful because they allow you to ‘paint with broad brushstrokes’. Remember, writing is just ‘thinking on paper’! You need good thinking to produce good writing! So, make sure you allow yourself proper time to analyse the task and always look for ways to group similar items logically.
6. Use data
You’re expected to include data (dates, numbers, percentages etc.) in your answer, if you don’t include the key data, you won’t score more than 5 for task achievement – even if you are a native writer. But you shouldn’t write long lists describing allthe date in a graph or table. If you do this, you will end up with a very repetitive text. So, instead, try to limit yourself to including the main figures and remember that you can also describe trends with words: the text below highlighted.
Between 2006 and 2016, the use of different types of media changed significantly, with the exception of video games. In 2006, watching TV was the most popular activity at 2.5 hours a day, whereas only 0.1 hours were spent using social media and phones. From 2006 to 2016, the use of phones and social media rose significantly and replaced TV as the number one media activity at 2.5 hours per day. During this same period, time spent watching TV fell considerably and became one of the least favourite types of media. Other traditional media, such as listening to music and reading also became far less popular. By 2016, children spent 50% less time using these media at 0.6 hours and 0.3 hours per day respectively. This contrasts with time spent using computers, which nearly doubled from 0.6 to 1.1 hours per day between 2006 and 2016.
7. Make comparisons
If a task is a graph or table of data, there is always the instruction to ‘make comparisons where relevant’. You are encouraged to do this because, if you do it well, you will display a wider range of vocabulary and grammar. When you ‘make comparisons’ you should identify patterns which are similar and patterns which are different. Look at all the comparing language highlighted in blue in the response below.
The chart shows the % of international students taking undergraduate, postgraduate and foundation courses in the UK between 1985 and 2015.Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features and make comparisons where necessary
The line graph illustrates the proportion of overseas students on UK postgraduate, undergraduate and foundation courses from 1985 to 2015. Overall, far moreinternational students studied undergraduate courses than postgraduate or foundation courses during this period with the exception of 2010. In 1985, the proportion of international students taking undergraduate and postgraduate courses was broadly similarat around 40%. This contrasted tojust less than 15% of students taking foundation courses. From 1985 to 2000, the proportion of undergraduate level students rose steadily to peak at approximately 75%. During the same period, the percentage of students on postgraduate level courses fell continuously to just over 20%, and students attending foundation courses dropped from just below 20% to about 3%. From 2005 to 2010, the percentage of students taking postgraduate courses soared from just above 20% to around 55%, while, on the other hand, the percentage for undergraduate courses plummeted from about 70% to 40%. As a result, 2010 was the only year between 1985 and 2015 when the percentage of postgraduates was higher than the percentage of undergraduates. In the final five-year period from 2010 to 2015, the proportion of postgraduate students fell sharply to approximately 30%, whereas the proportion on undergraduate courses recovered to around 55% and foundation courses reached a high of nearly 20%.
8. Identify the outlier!
We have already mentioned that it is not necessary to include mention of all the data but dolook out for any exceptions to patterns; thing which stand out. There is usually an outlier in every IELTS task – something which doesn’t fit the general trends or patterns. The tasks are designed to include these ‘exceptions’. Look at the text highlighted below:
Overall, far more international students studied undergraduate courses than postgraduate or foundation courses during this period with the exception of 2010.
As a result, 2010 was the only year between 1985 and 2015 when the percentage of postgraduates was higher than the percentage of undergraduates.
That’s all! Overall, the key message is: aim to maximize your score on the ‘easier/softer’ left side of the assessment criteria. A candidate with band 7 grammar and vocabulary can mess up with poor analysis and organisation and only score a 6 overall. On the other hand, a candidate with level 6 language can score 6.5 overall with greater attention to planning and organisation. So, think and plan before you rush to write!
In addition:
don’t forget to state the obvious; imagine your reader can’t see what you see
look for smart ways to group items together
use data, avoid lists of repetitive structures, and compare and contrast wherever possible
And, practice, practice, practice! The key is to train yourself to write 200 words in just 15 minutes.
本文由 Dr. James McCloskey撰写原文，由InVisor新媒体小编VC翻译。
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